LNG
RELATED
INFORMATION
The
following
document
lists
a
series
of
reference
scientific
papers,
citations
of
conference
proceedings,
and
web
links
that
provide
useful
information
regarding
LNG
issues,
ranging
from
biological
impacts,
to
LNG
safety
issues,
technologies,
and
modeling
approaches.

TABLE
OF
POTENTIAL
EFFECTS
OF
LNG
AND
RELATED
FACILITIES
ON
MARINE
BIOTA
System
or
Organism
Potential
Effects
Study
Site
Reference
TEMPERATURE
DECREASE
Marine
Biota
The
anthropogenic
decrease
in
water
temperature
adversely
affects
the
living
organisms.
This
impact
is
proposed
to
be
regarded
as
a
case
of
thermal
pollution.
Black
Sea
and
Desnogorsk
Reservoir
3
Corals
Limits
abundance,
diversity,
and
distribution.
Can
cause
stress
and
mortality.
Biscayne
Bay,
Florida
1
Larval
and
juvenile
herring
Clupea
harengus
High
larvae
mortality.
Vistula
Lagoon,
Baltic
Sea
2
Phytoplankton
(
Skeletonema
costatum)
Disruption
of
aggregates.
This
may
be
an
important
factor
in
determining
the
flux
rate
of
fixed
carbon
and
nutrients,
since
aggregated
cultures
had
significantly
higher
sinking
rates
than
unaggregated
cultures.
Northern
Adriatic
Sea
and
Lab
experiments
4
Pinfish
/
Largemouth
bass
Can
cause
mortality.
Laguna
Madre,
Southern
Texas
coast
/
Northern
Florida
5,
14
Crustacean
larvae
(
Rhithropanopeus
harrisii
and
Neopanope
sayi)
Behavioral
change
(
vertical
movement).
Lab
6
Whelk
mollusk
(
Busycon
canaliculatum)
Temperature­
dependent
changes
affected
enzyme
pyruvate
kinase
properties
in
a
manner
that
would
restrict
enzyme
function
at
low
temperature.
Lab
7
Marine
copepod
(
Calanus
finmarchicus)
Growth
and
survival
of
copepodite
stages
were
markedly
affected
by
temperature.
Coastal
areas
of
northern
Norway;
Lab
8
CHLORINATION
Benthic
community
Decline
on
abundance.
Lab
9
Phytoplankton
Growth
reduction
and
mortality,
and
influence
of
cellular
density.
Lab
10
Oyster
larvae
Effects
on
the
growth
of
marine
invertebrates
during
their
delicate
larval
stages
(
e.
g.
oysters),
and
mortality.
Lab
15
Estuarine
and
marine
organisms
(
plankton,
macroinvertebrates,
fish)
Review
paper
of
data
related
to
biofouling
control
in
estuarine
and
marine
thermoelectric
power
plants.
11
ENTRAINMENT
Zooplankton
Community
composition
and
abundance.
Missouri
River
12,
17,
18
Phytoplankton
Changes
on
population
structure;
reduction
of
species
diversity.
Southern
California
13
Phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
and
ichthyoplankton
Mortality
and
near­
field
alterations
of
benthic
and
epibenthic
communities.
Western
Cape
Cod
Bay,
Massachusetts
16
Nektonic
organisms,
zooplankton.
Entrainment
and
impingement
results
of
a
monitoring
program.
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays,
Puerto
Rico
19
LITERATURE
CITED
(
1)
Lirman,
D.,
Orlando,
B.,
Macia,
S.,
Manzello,
D.,
Kaufman,
L.,
Biber,
P.,
and
Jones,
T.,
2003.
Coral
communities
of
Biscayne
Bay,
Florida
and
adjacent
offshore
areas:
diversity,
abundance,
distribution,
and
environmental
correlates.
Aquatic
Conservation:
Marine
and
Freshwater
Ecosystems,
13
(
2):
121­
135.

Abstract:
Hardbottom
habitats
of
Biscayne
Bay,
a
shallow
lagoon
adjacent
to
the
city
of
Miami,
Florida,
USA,
contain
a
limited
number
of
coral
species
that
represent
a
small
subset
of
the
species
found
at
nearby
offshore
hardbottom
and
reef
habitats
of
the
Florida
Reef
Tract.
Although
the
physical
characteristics
of
this
basin
make
it
a
marginal
environment
for
coral
growth,
the
presence
of
dense
populations
of
Siderastrea
radians
and
Porites
furcata
indicate
that
these,
as
well
as
other
corals
that
are
found
at
lower
densities,
are
able
to
tolerate
extreme
and
fluctuating
conditions.
Three
factors,
temperature,
sedimentation,
and
salinity,
appear
to
limit
coral
abundance,
diversity,
and
distribution
within
Biscayne
Bay.
Temperatures
exhibit
high
frequencies
of
extreme
high
and
low
values
known
to
cause
coral
stress
and
mortality
elsewhere.
Similarly,
sedimentation
rates
are
very
high
and
sediment
resuspension
caused
by
currents,
storms
and
boating
activities
commonly
bury
corals
under
sediment
layers.
Sediment
burial
was
shown
experimentally
to
influence
growth
and
mortality
of
S.
radians.
The
salinity
of
Biscayne
Bay
is
influenced
by
freshwater
inputs
from
canal,
sheetflow
and
groundwater
sources
that
create
a
near­
shore
environment
with
low
mean
salinity
and
high
salinity
fluctuation.
Coral
communities
along
this
western
margin
have
the
lowest
coral
density
and
species
richness.
Chronic
exposure
to
low
salinity
was
shown
experimentally
to
cause
a
decrease
in
the
growth
of
S.
radians.
The
location
of
Biscayne
Bay,
downstream
of
a
large
restoration
effort
planned
for
the
Everglades
watershed,
highlights
the
need
to
understand
the
relationship
between
the
physical
environment
and
the
health
of
benthic
communities.
The
data
presented
here
provide
the
type
of
scientific
information
needed
so
that
management
decisions
can
take
into
account
the
potential
impacts
of
human
activities
on
the
health
of
coral
populations
that
are
already
near
their
tolerance
limits
for
temperature,
salinity,
and
sedimentation.
(
2)
Fey,
D.
P.
2001.
Differences
in
temperature
conditions
and
somatic
growth
rate
of
larval
and
early
juvenile
spring­
spawned
herring
from
the
Vistula
Lagoon,
Baltic
Sea
manifested
in
the
otolith
to
fish
size
relationship.
Journal
of
Fish
Biology,
58
(
5):
1257­
1273.

Abstract:
Larval
and
juvenile
herring
Clupea
harengus
collected
in
the
Polish
part
of
the
Vistula
Lagoon
in
May­
July
1997
had
hatched
between
17
April
and
9
June
and
originated
from
three
cohorts.
The
spawning
season
began
on
1
March
at
3.8
parallel
C
and
was
completed
on
3
June
at
12.7
parallel
C.
Mortality
among
larvae
was
high
in
the
first
2
weeks
of
April,
probably
associated
with
significant
temperature
decrease
at
the
beginning
of
the
spawning
season.
The
growth
of
10­
48mm
L
sub(
S)
herring
was
linear,
highest
for
larvae
and
juveniles
from
the
first
cohort
(
0.58mmmm
super(
1)
day
super(
1)),
slower
for
the
second
cohort
(
0.55mmmm
super(
1)
day
super(
1))
and
the
slowest
for
the
third
cohort
(
0.45mmmmday
super(
1)).
Temperature
effects
on
the
growth
were
inconclusive
and
potentially
unfavorable
feeding
conditions
in
June
might
have
been
responsible
for
the
relatively
slow
growth
of
third
cohort
larvae
and
juveniles.
Relationships
between
otolith
size
(
perimeter,
length,
width,
area,
and
weight)
and
fish
size
(
L
sub(
S))
differed
among
the
three
cohorts,
related
mostly
to
the
positive
temperature
effect
on
otolith
growth,
individuals
growing
in
warmer
water
had
larger
otoliths.
Although
a
negative
growth
rate
effect
was
observed
as
well,
it
was
less
significant.

(
3)
Beznosov,
V.
N.
and
Suzdaleva,
A.
L.,
2001.
Temperature
Decrease
in
the
Surface
Water
Layer
of
a
Reservoir
as
an
Example
of
Environmental
Thermal
Pollution.
Water
Resources/
Vodnye
Resursy,
28
(
4):
396­
398.

Abstract:
Based
on
the
results
of
experiments
carried
out
in
the
Black
Sea
and
Desnogorsk
Reservoir,
it
is
shown
that
the
anthropogenic
decrease
in
the
temperature
of
water
medium
adversely
affects
the
living
organisms.
This
impact
is
proposed
to
be
regarded
as
a
case
of
thermal
pollution.

(
4)
Thornton,
D.
C.
O.
and
Thake,
B.,
1998.
Effect
of
temperature
on
the
aggregation
of
Skeletonema
costatum
(
Bacillariophyceae)
and
the
implication
for
carbon
flux
in
coastal
waters.
Marine
Ecology
Progress
Series,
174:
223­
231.

Abstract:
Skeletonema
costatum
was
isolated
from
a
mucilaginous
algal
bloom
in
the
Northern
Adriatic
Sea
during
April
1993.
In
nitrate­
limited
continuous
culture
the
formation
of
aggregations
of
cells
was
positively
correlated
with
temperature.
Raising
the
temperature
from
10
to
20
degree
C
caused
cells
to
aggregate
without
a
change
in
culture
biomass.
Reducing
the
temperature
to
10
degree
C
caused
washout
of
the
aggregates,
again
with
no
change
in
biomass.
In
batch
culture
there
was
a
positive
relationship
between
aggregate
concentration
and
temperature
at
10,
15,
20
and
25
degree
C.
Aggregates
and
the
cell
surface
of
S.
costatum
adsorbed
Alcian
blue,
a
stain
for
acid
and
sulphated
polysaccharides.
Disruption
of
the
aggregates
on
addition
of
0.2
M
Na
sub(
2)
EDTA
indicated
that
cross­
linking
between
polysaccharides
by
divalent
cations
(
probably
Ca
super(
2+)
in
seawater)
bound
the
aggregates
together.
Aggregates
may
form
in
situ
under
conditions
of
temperature
increase
and
high
phytoplankton
biomass.
Surface
water
temperature
increased
by
0.2
degree
C/
d
in
the
second
half
of
July
1992
in
the
Northern
Adriatic,
coinciding
with
a
chlorophyll
a
increase
of
10
to
50
mu
g/
l.
A
temperature
difference
of
1.2
degree
C
was
observed
at
2
stations
4
m
apart
in
May
1992
on
either
side
of
a
plume
front
associated
with
the
River
Po;
transfer
of
phytoplankton
in
eddies
from
cold
to
warm
waters
may
lead
to
the
formation
of
aggregates.
Aggregate
disruption
may
occur
with
the
sinking
of
aggregates
from
surface
waters
to
the
relatively
cool
waters
below
the
thermocline.
The
temperature
decrease
through
the
thermocline
varied
between
2.7
and
4.1
degree
C
in
May
1992.
The
relationship
between
aggregation
and
temperature
may
be
an
important
factor
in
determining
the
flux
rate
of
fixed
carbon
and
nutrients
from
the
photic
zone
to
deeper
waters
and
the
sea
bed.
Aggregated
cultures
had
significantly
higher
sinking
rates
than
unaggregated
cultures.

(
5)
Bennett,
WA
and
Judd,
F.
W.,
1992.
Factors
affecting
the
low­
temperature
tolerance
of
Texas
pinfish.
Transactions
of
the
American
Fisheries
Society,
121
(
5):
659­
666.

Abstract:
Subtropical
regions
are
occasionally
exposed
to
extreme
low
temperatures
that
often
cause
massive
fish
kills.
Nowhere
is
this
phenomenon
more
striking
than
in
the
Laguna
Madre
of
the
southern
Texas
coast,
where
shallow,
nearly
landlocked
water
can
cool
rapidly.
The
Texas
Parks
and
Wildlife
Dep
estimated
that
a
series
of
cold
fronts
during
the
1980s
killed
over
29
million
marine
fish
along
the
southern
Texas
coast.
Lab
experiments
were
conducted
to
determine
the
effects
of
rate
of
temperature
decrease,
acclimation
time,
acclimation
temperature,
and
seasonal
changes
on
the
low­
temperature
tolerance
of
pinfish
Lagodon
rhomboides.
The
critical
thermal
minimum
(
CTMin)
was
insensitive
to
rates
of
temperature
decrease
between
0.5
degree
C/
h
and
1.5
degree
C/
h
but
was
linearly
correlated
with
acclimation
temperature.
When
water
temperatures
were
decreased
at
1.0
degree
C/
h,
the
mean
CTMin
of
pinfish
acclimated
at
24.0
degree
C
was
3.4
degree
C.
Acclimation
adjustments
in
CTMin
for
fish
transferred
from
22.0
degree
C
to
11.7
degree
C
were
complete
within
5
d.
Indeed,
cold­
temperature
acclimation
was
80%
complete
in
30
h.
Seasonally
acclimatized
pinfish
had
mean
CTMin
values
ranging
from
0.5
degree
C
(
Jan)
to
5.3
degree
C
(
Jul).
Responses
of
pinfish
to
cold
temperature
in
the
laboratory
may
explain
variations
in
mortality
seen
in
natural
Laguna
Madre
pinfish
populations
during
episodes
of
extreme
cold.

(
6)
Forward,
R.
B.
Jr.,
1990.
Behavioral
responses
of
crustacean
larvae
to
rates
of
temperature
change.
Biological
Bulletin,
Marine
Biological
Laboratory,
Woods
Hole,
178
(
3):
195­
204.

Abstract:
The
ontogeny
of
behavioral
responses
of
larvae
of
the
crabs
Rhithropanopeus
harrisii
and
Neopanope
sayi
to
rates
of
change
in
temperature
were
analyzed
using
a
video
system.
A
temperature
decrease
evoked
an
ascent
in
both
species.
The
threshold
rates
of
decrease
for
Stages
I
and
IV
zoeae
of
R.
harrisii
,
and
Stage
I
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
,
were
0.06,
0.1,
and
0.09
degree
C
min
super(­
1),
respectively.
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
were
unresponsive
to
any
rate
of
decrease.
Larvae
descended
upon
a
temperature
increase.
For
Stages
I
and
IV
zoeae
of
R.
harrisii
and
Stage
I
of
N.
sayi
the
threshold
rates
of
temperature
increase
were
0.07,
0.24,
and
0.18
degree
C
min
super(­
1),
respectively.
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
N.
sayi
were
again
unresponsive.
In
general,
there
was
an
ontogenetic
change
in
responsiveness
as
Stage
IV
zoeae
of
both
species
were
less
sensitive
than
Stage
I
zoeae.
The
average
absolute
amounts
of
temperature
change
needed
to
evoke
a
response
was
independent
of
the
rate
of
change
at
rates
above
threshold
and
ranged
from
0.29
to
0.49
degree
C
for
both
species.

(
7)
Michaelidis,
B
and
Storey,
K.
B.,
1990.
Interactions
of
temperature
and
pH
on
the
regulatory
properties
of
pyruvate
kinase
from
organs
of
a
marine
mollusk.
Journal
of
Experimental
Marine
Biology
and
Ecology:
140
(
3):
187­
196.

Abstract:
The
effects
of
low
temperature
assay
(
5
degree
C)
on
the
properties
of
the
aerobic
(
low
phosphate)
vs.
anoxic
(
high
phosphate)
forms
of
pyruvate
kinase
(
PK)
from
foot
muscle
and
gill
of
the
whelk
Busycon
canaliculatum
(
L.)
were
assessed
at
two
pH
values,
pH
7.00
and
7.25,
and
compared
to
control
conditions
of
20
degree
C
and
pH
7.00
(
all
assayed
in
imidazole
buffer).
When
pH
was
held
constant
at
7.00,
the
decrease
in
assay
temperature
to
5
degree
C
had
large
effects
on
the
measured
kinetic
parameters
of
all
PK
forms,
as
compared
to
20
degree
C
and
pH
7.00.
However,
when
assay
pH
was
allowed
to
rise,
from
7.00
to
7.25,
with
the
temperature
decrease
to
5
degree
C
there
were
fewer
alterations
of
kinetic
parameters
and
quantitatively
smaller
changes
to
enzyme
properties.
It
appears,
then,
that
when
pH
rises
with
decreasing
temperature
following
alphastat
predictions,
kinetic
properties
of
PK
are
largely
conserved.
Low
temperature,
at
either
pH
value,
had
several
significant
effects
on
PK
properties.
For
example,
low
temperature
raised
the
S
sub(
0.5)
for
phosphoenolpyruvate
of
PK­
anoxic
from
gill
by
3­
6
fold
and
decreased
the
I
sub(
50)
Mg
.
ATP
for
PK­
anoxic
from
foot
by
the
same
amount.
Arrhenius
plots
of
PK
activity
for
the
gill
PK
forms
showed
a
distinct
break
at
10
degree
C;
>
10
degree
C
Q
sub(
10)
was
2.5
whereas
<
10
degree
C
Q
sub(
10)
was
8.4.
Temperature­
dependent
changes
in
all
cases
affected
enzyme
properties
in
a
manner
that
would
restrict
enzyme
function
at
low
temperature.

(
8)
Tande,
K.
S.,
1988.
Aspects
of
developmental
and
mortality
rates
in
Calanus
finmarchicus
related
to
equiproportional
development.
Marine
ecology
progress
series,
44
(
1):
51­
58.

Abstract:
The
marine
copepod
Calanus
finmarchicus
from
coastal
areas
of
northern
Norway
was
cultivated
at
3
temperatures
from
egg
to
adult
in
the
laboratory.
Growth
and
survival
of
copepodite
stages
were
markedly
affected
by
the
temperature
regime.
A
hypothesis
is
formulated
that
during
the
main
annual
growth
period
of
C.
finmarchicus
in
arctic­
boreal
areas
not
only
is
this
species
sensitive
to
a
temperature
decrease,
but
also
a
certain
temperature
increase
is
a
prerequisite
to
successful
growth
from
copepodite
Stage
I
to
copepodite
Stage
IV
and
V.
The
ecological
implications
of
this
hypothesis
are
discussed.

(
9)
Sheridan,
P.
F.
and
Badger
A.
C.,
1981.
Responses
of
experimental
estuarine
communities
to
continuous
chlorination.
Estuarine,
Coastal
and
shelf
Science,
13
(
3):
337­
347.

Abstract:
The
effects
of
continuous
chlorination
(
as
NaOCI)
on
estuarine
benthic
organisms
were
investigated
with
plankton­
derived
experimental
communities.
Twelve
consecutive
studies
were
conducted,
each
of
which
consisted
of
approximately
60­
day
colonization
periods
from
flowing
estuarine
waters
that
continuously
received
nominal
concentrations
of
o
multiplied
by
00,
0
multiplied
by
47,
0
degree
94
or
1
degree
41
mg
chlorine­
produced
oxidant
(
CPO)
1
super(­)
super(
1).
Significant
chlorination
effects
on
numerical
abundances
of
eight
dominant
species
were
detected
in
data
pooled
over
the
12
consecutive
studies,
although
only
two
species
were
significantly
affected
in
proportional
abundance.

(
10)
Videau,
C.,
Khalauski,
M.,
and
Penot,
M.,
1978.
The
chlorination
effects
of
monospecific
cultures
of
marine
phytoplankton.
Preliminary
results.
J.
Rech.
Oceanogr.,
3
(
2):
19­
28.

Abstract:
Static
chlorination
tests
have
been
carried
out
on
three
phytoplanktonic
marine
species
(
Dunaliella
primolecta,
Monochrysis
lutheri,
Phaeodactylum
tricornutum).
These
tests
have
led
to
the
following
conclusions:
(
1)
The
specific
response
and
the
sensibility
threshold
of
the
algae
tested:
the
chlorine
LC50
for
the
least
dense
culture
(
10
SUP­
3
cells.
ml
SUP­­
1
)
of
Dunaliella
and
Monochrysis
is
0
.
4
and
4
.
0
ppm
respectively,
while
the
growth
of
Phaeodactylum
is
slowed
down
or
stopped
at
a
chlorine
concentration
of
0
.
6
ppm.
(
2)
Influence
of
cellular
density:
chlorine
toxicity
increases
with
decreasing
cellular
concentration
(
tests
from
10
SUP­
3
to
10
SUP­
6
cells.
ml
SUP­­
1
).
(
3)
The
effect
on
chlorophyll
a:
in
Dunaliella,
chlorophyll
a
concentration
is
not
affected
when
the
mortality
due
to
the
chlorine
injection
is
equal
to
or
lower
than
50%.
The
chlorophyll
a
concentration
is
greatly
reduced
for
higher
mortality
rates.
(
4)
Influence
of
light:
chlorinations
conducted
in
the
dark
produce
a
lower
mortality
rate,
for
Dunaliella,
than
chlorinations
in
the
light.
The
mortality
rate
is
lower
as
long
as
the
cultures
are
kept
in
the
dark.

(
11)
Hall,
L.
W.,
Jr.,
Burton,
D.
T.,
and
Liden,
L.
H.,
1982.
Power
plant
chlorination
effects
on
estuarine
and
marine
organisms.
Critical
Reviews
in
Toxicology,
10
(
1):
27­
48.

Abstract:
This
review
was
designed
to
synthesize
current
phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
macroinvertebrate,
and
fish
chlorine
toxicity
data
related
to
biofouling
control
in
estuarine
and
marine
thermoelectric
power
plants.
The
following
research
recommendations
are
suggested
for
improving
the
existing
data:
(
1)
evaluation
of
the
recovery
potential
or
phytoplankton
after
exposure
to
chlorinated
of
brominated
oxidants
during
through­
plant
entrainment;
(
2)
assessment
of
the
effects
of
long­
term
exposure
of
phytoplankton
to
low
levels
of
chlorine
or
chlorine
by­
products
resulting
from
continuous
or
intermittent
applications;
(
3)
determination
of
possible
bioaccumulation
of
chlorinated
or
brominated
compounds
in
the
food
chain;
(
4)
evaluation
of
interacting
chlorine,
Delta
T,
mechanical
stress,
exposure
duration,
and
ambient
temperature
conditions
on
entrained
organisms;
and
(
5)
assessment
of
sublethal
effects
of
intermittent
and/
or
continuous
chlorination
on
macroinvertebrates
and
fish.
Site
specific
data
are
recommended
for
the
most
precise
evaluation
of
chlorination
effects
on
aquatic
organisms.

(
12)
Repsys,
A.
J.
and
Rogers,
G.
D.,
1982.
Zooplankton
studies
in
the
channelized
Missouri
River.
The
middle
Missouri
River,
a
collection
of
papers
on
the
biology
with
special
reference
to
power
station
effects.
Pp.
125­
146.

Abstract:
The
results
are
presented
of
long­
term
monitoring
programmes
undertaken
at
2
power
plants
on
the
Missouri
River
to
evaluate
the
effects
on
the
zooplankton
community.
The
community
composition,
abundance
and
seasonality,
entrainment
effects
and
thermal
effects
are
described.

(
13)
Briand,
F.
J.,
1975.
Effects
of
power­
plant
cooling
systems
on
marine
phytoplankton.
Marine
Biology,
33
(
2):
135­
146.

Abstract:
The
large
quantities
of
marine
phytoplankton
passing
through
the
cooling
systems
of
2
Southern
California
coastal
power
plants
were
found
to
be
greatly
reduced
in
numbers
(
41.7%)
and
in
volume
(
33.7%).
The
biomass
killed
from
June,
1972
to
May,
1973
amounted
to
{
approx}
1,7000
tons
of
organic
carbon.
Phytoplankton
mortalities
were
most
pronounced
from
Oct
to
Dec
when
intake
waters
of
17{
degree}
to
20{
degree}
C
were
subjected
to
temp
elevations
of
9
to
11{
degree}
C,
and
were
lowest
from
Jan
to
March
when
cooler
ambient
temps
prevailed.
There
was
no
apparent
reduction
in
phytoplankton
stocks
when
the
intake
water
was
cooler
than
15{
degree}
C.
Surviving
cells
in
25{
degree}
and
26.5{
degree}
C
effluent
waters
were
growing
3
times
faster
than
influent
populations,
which
suggests
that
powerplant
effects
on
phytoplankton
stocks
are
often
short­
lived.
However,
entrainment
effects
appear
very
disruptive,
in
changing
the
structure
of
phytoplankton
communities
and
in
constantly
reducing
species
diversity
(
H').
Passage
through
the
condenser
tubes
affected
algal
spp
differentially,
killing
diatoms
in
greater
numbers
(
45.7%)
than
dinoflagellates
(
32.8%),
and
reinforcing
the
dominance
of
the
2
major
spp,
Asterionella
japonica
and
Gonyaulax
polyedra,
that
were
the
most
tolerant.
The
severity
of
the
impact
appears
to
be
controlled
by
2
interacting
factors:
intake
water­
temp
and
magnitude
of
temp
increase.
On
this
basis,
use
by
coastal
power
plants
of
deep­
sea
water
for
cooling
is
strongly
advocated.

(
14)
Carmichael,
G.
J.,
H.
Williamson,
C.
A.
Caldwell,
and
J.
R.
Tomasso,
1988.
Communications:
Responses
of
Northern,
Florida,
and
Hybrid
Largemouth
Bass
to
Low
Temperature
and
Low
Dissolved
Oxygen.
The
Progressive
Fish­
Culturist,
50
(
4):
225
 
231.

Abstract:
Two
parental
subspecies
of
largemouth
bass
(
Micropterus
salmoides),
northern
(
M.
s.
salmoides)
and
Florida
(
M.
s.
floridanus),
and
their
reciprocal
F
sub(
1)
hybrids
were
examined
for
their
responses
to
low
temperature
and
low
dissolved
oxygen
concentrations.
The
four
strains
(
verified
electrophoretically)
survived
a
temperature
decrease
from
21
to
1
degree
C
at
a
rate
of
about
1
degree
C/
d
followed
by
immediate
warming.
Among
fish
maintained
at
low
temperature
(
2.0
plus
or
minus
0.4
degree
C;
mean
plus
or
minus
SE)
for
5
d,
mortalities
were
48%
for
the
Florida
fish
and
4­
5%
for
the
Florida
(
female)
hybrid,
compared
with
zero
for
the
northern
fish
and
the
northern
(
female)
hybrid.
All
four
groups
showed
similar
trends
in
feeding
behavior
during
the
temperature
treatments.
At
22
degree
C
acclimation,
the
residual
oxygen
concentrations
(
oxygen
concentrations
at
time
of
death
by
hypoxia,
during
sealed­
jarhypoxia
bioassays)
were
lower
in
tests
with
the
northern
and
Florida
subspecies
than
in
tests
with
the
hybrids,
and
were
lower
for
northern
than
for
Florida
fish.

(
15)
Stewart,
M.
E.,
W.
J.
Blogoslawski,
R.
Y.
Hsu,
and
G.
R.
Helz,
1979.
By­
products
of
oxidative
biocides:
toxicity
to
oyster
larvae.
Marine
Pollution
Bulletin,
10
(
6):
166­
169.

Abstract:
Selected
by­
products
which
are
produced
upon
chlorination
or
ozonization
of
seawater
were
examined
for
their
effect
on
eastern
oyster
(
Crassostrea
virginica
)
larvae.
The
compounds,
bromate,
bromoform,
and
chloroform,
were
studied
at
0.05,
0.1,
1.0,
and
10.0
mg/
l.
Repeated
bioassays
indicated
that
even
at
these
low
levels,
all
3
substances
produced
some
larval
mortality.
This
preliminary
study
suggests
that
oxidation
by­
products
formed
during
chlorination
or
ozonization
of
power
plant
cooling
waters
may
have
adverse
effects
upon
the
growth
of
marine
invertebrates,
such
as
C.
virginica
during
their
delicate
larval
stages.

(
16)
Bridges,
W.
L.
and
R.
D.
Anderson,
1984.
A
brief
survey
of
Pilgrim
Nuclear
Power
Plant
effects
upon
the
marine
aquatic
environment.
Observations
on
the
Ecology
and
Biology
of
Weatern
Cape
Cod
Bay,
Massachusetts.
Lect.
Notes
Coastal
and
Estuarine
Studies,
11:
263­
271.

Abstract:
A
broad
range
of
environmental
studies,
begun
in
1969,
were
designed
to
detect
environmental
disturbances
attributable
to
release
of
heated
cooling
water
into
Cape
Cod
Bay
from
the
Pilgrim
Nuclear
Power
Station.
On
a
scale
encompassing
the
more
immediate
vicinity
of
the
power
station
certain
site
specific
or
occasionally
occurring
effects
were
documented.
Most
notable
were
several
significant
mortalities
due
to
"
gas
bubble
disease",
periodic
incidences
of
finfish
impingement
on
the
cooling
water
intake
traveling
screens,
near­
field
alterations
of
the
benthic
and
epibenthic
communities
in
the
vicinity
of
the
cooling
water
discharge,
and
entrainment
of
phytoplankton,
zooplankton,
and
ichthyoplankton
in
the
cooling
water
flow.
(
17)
Evans,
M.
S.,
Hawkins,
B.
E.,
and
Wurster,
T.
E.,
1978.
Effects
of
the
Donald
C.
Cook
Nuclear
Power
Plant
on
zooplankton
of
southeastern
Lake
Michigan.
Fourth
national
workshop
on
entrainment
and
impingement,
5
December
1977,
Chicago,
Illinois.

Abstract:
An
overview
is
provided
of
the
preoperational
and
operational
zooplankton
monitoring
program
at
the
Donald
C.
Cook
Nuclear
Power
Plant
which
circulates
2,700
cu
m/
min
of
water
through
submerged
intake
and
discharge
structures.
Entrainment
studies
suggest
that
at
most
12%
of
the
entrained
zooplankton
were
killed
by
condenser
passage
and
that
there
was
no
evidence
of
delayed
mortality
within
24
hours
of
plant
passage.
Although
large
numbers
of
zooplankton
passed
through
the
plant,
losses
could
not
be
detected
in
zooplankton
populations
in
the
discharge
area
because
of
dilution
effects.
Calculations
of
the
depositional
area
and
rate
of
zooplankton
killed
by
plant
passage
suggest
that
no
significant
enrichment
of
the
sediments
with
these
dead
zooplankton
should
occur.
An
intensive
plume
mapping
study
indicated
that
spatial
alterations
in
zooplankton
populations
were
limited
to
a
distance
of
only
a
few
hundred
meters
from
the
discharge
jets.
In
summary,
although
the
Donald
C.
Cook
is
a
relatively
large
plant,
damage
to
the
zooplankton
community
has
been
minimized
by
locating
the
plant
on
a
large,
wellmixed
body
of
water;
by
operating
at
temperatures
that
do
not
approach
the
upper
lethal
limits
for
most
zooplankton;
and
by
the
use
of
discharge
jets
(
rather
than
canals),
which
rapidly
dilute
and
cool
condenser­
passed
water.

(
18)
Rogers,
G.
D.,
1978.
Entrainment
of
crustacean
zooplankton
through
Fort
Calhoun
Station.
Fourth
national
workshop
on
entrainment
and
impingement,
5
December
1977,
Chicago,
Illinois.

Abstract:
Entrained
crustacean
zooplankton
were
studied
at
Fort
Calhoun
Station
(
near
Blair,
Nebraska)
from
October
1973
through
June
1977
to
evaluate
the
effects
of
condenser
passage
on
zooplankton
survival.
Live­
dead
separations
were
performed
on
duplicate
samples
obtained
from
the
station's
intake
and
discharge
areas
with
a
filter
pump
system.
The
separations
were
performed
at
0,
4,
and
24
hours
following
condenser
passage.
Thermal
stress
appeared
to
be
the
principal
factor
reducing
zooplankton
viability
immediately
following
condenser
passage
(
0
hours).
On
17
sampling
dates
when
heat
was
not
being
exchanged
across
the
condenser,
mechanical
damage
accounted
for
an
average
increase
in
immotility
of
1.1%;
for
the
17
dates
when
the
station
was
generating
electricity,
a
3.8%
increase
in
immotility
was
observed.
The
relationship
between
viability
and
thermal
stress
at
0
hours
was
less
evident
at
4
and
24
hours.
During
the
entire
study
period,
increases
in
immotility
at
0
hours
ranged
from
0.0
to
16.0%
and
averaged
3.3%.
The
station
used
an
average
of
2.5%
(
SD,
1.02)
of
the
Missouri
River
flow
for
coling.
Assuming
homogeneous
distribution
of
zooplankton
in
the
river,
station
operation
decreased
the
viability
of
the
totaL
Missouri
River
zooplankton
community
passing
the
station
by
an
average
of
0.1%.

(
19)
Littrell,
J.
A.
and
J.
V.
Biaggi.
1979.
Petroleum
refinery
impacts
on
near
shore
marine
environment.
Proceedings
Association
of
Island
Marine
Laboratories
of
the
Caribbean.
Mayaguez,
Vol.
14,
p.
29.

Abstract:
A
one
year
biological
monitoring
program
was
conducted
in
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays,
Puerto
Rico
to
assess
the
impacts
of
petroleum
refinery
facility
operations
on
the
near
shore
marine
life
of
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays.
Topics
covered
are:
1)
impacts
from
impingement
of
nektonic
organisms
on
cooling­
water
intake
screens;
2)
Quantity
of
zooplankton
available
for
entrainment
in
cooling­
water
system;
3)
assessment
of
near
shore
fish
populations;
4)
sampling
of
fouling
and
interstitial
organisms;
5)
water
quality
of
Tallaboa
and
Guayanilla
Bays;
and
6)
toxicity
testing
of
heated
effluent
water.
Results
of
the
monitoring
program
are
discussed.
ADDITIONAL
REFERENCES
ADDRESSING
LNG
ISSUES
EFFECTS
ON
BIOTA
Emerson,
R.
R.
1976.
Bioassay
and
Heavy
Metal
Uptake
Investigations
of
Resuspended
Sediment
on
Two
Species
of
Polychaetous
Annelids.
Marine
Studies
of
San
Pedro
Bay,
California,
Part
II'
June
1976.
p.
69­
90.

Summary:
Two
species
of
polychaetous
annelids
(
Capitella
capitata
and
Ophryotrocha
sp.)
were
used
in
a
series
of
bioassays
to
determine
the
toxicity
of
resuspended
sediments
from
fourteen
stations
in
Los
Angeles
Harbor.
Significant
mortality
did
not
occur
in
either
short­
term
(
96­
hour)
or
long­
term
(
28­
day)
bioassays
using
Ophryotrocha
sp.
Numbers
of
offspring
were
significantly
reduced
in
all
sediments
except
the
outermost
harbor
station
(
LNG­
1),
indicating
sublethal
effects.
Development
success
of
Capitella
capitata
larvae
ranged
from
40%
to
95%.
The
more
grossly
contaminated
sediments
yielded
lower
numbers
of
successfully
developing
larvae
but
higher
growth
rates
in
the
surviving
larvae.
Contamination
levels
of
the
sediments
correlated
more
closely
with
sediment
particle
size
than
with
distance
from
the
outside
harbor.
Heavy
metal
concentrations
in
the
tissues
of
Capitella
capitata
did
not
correspond
with
sediment
contamination
levels.
Resuspended
sediment
may
result
in
'
scavenging
'
which
lowers
the
concentration
of
some
heavy
metals
in
the
seawater.
(
See
also
W78­
03882)
(
Sinha­
OEIS).

McConaugha,
J.
R.
1976.
Toxicity
and
Heavy
Metals
Uptake
in
Three
Species
of
Crustacea
from
Los
Angeles
Harbor
Sediments.
Marine
Studies
of
San
Pedro
Bay,
California,
Part
II'
June
1976.
p
49­
67.

Summary:
Two
species
of
crustaceans,
Acartia
tonsa
and
Tisbe
sp.,
were
subjected
to
the
filtrate
fraction
of
resuspended
sediments
from
stations
in
the
Los
Angeles
Harbor.
The
96
hour
bioassays
for
A.
tonsa
produced
significant
reductions
in
the
survival
rates
of
test
groups
at
stations
LNG­
6,
LNG­
7,
16,
17,
18,
24,
and
27.
In
the
Tisbe
bioassays
only
station
LNG­
7
had
significantly
lower
survival
in
the
test
group
than
in
controls,
while
test
group
survival
at
stations
LNG­
4,
­
25
and
­
27
were
significantly
higher
than
control
survival.
This
data
suggests
that
dredging
operations
could
have
an
adverse
effect
on
the
A.
tonsa
population
and
consequently
an
effect
on
the
plankton
composition
and
food
chain
in
the
Los
Angeles
Harbor.
However,
the
stations
with
poorest
quality
are
in
the
area
to
be
filled.
Additional
experiments
were
conducted
to
determine
if
the
lined
shore
crab,
Pachygrapsus
crassipes,
was
capable
of
accumulating
heavy
metals
from
resuspended
sediments.
Following
a
7
day
exposure
to
the
sediment
elutriate
the
gill
tissue
was
examined
for
9
heavy
metals.
Because
of
extreme
variations
in
the
data
no
discernible
trends
were
observed.
(
See
also
W78­
03882)
(
Sinha­
OEIS).

Lanes,
O.
2000.
Characterization
and
determination
of
the
molecular
basis
for
cold
adaptation
in
Uracil­
DNA
glycosylase
from
Atlantic
cod
(
Gadus
morhua).
University
of
Tromsoe,
Tromsoe
(
Norway).
40
pp.

Summary:
Uracil­
DNA
glycosylase
(
UNG)
was
purified
and
characterized
from
Atlantic
cod
(
Gadus
morhua)
liver
(
Paper
I).
Atlantic
cod
UNG
(
cUNG)
was
found
to
be
similar
to
other
UNGs
previously
characterized,
with
respect
to
molecular
weight,
optimum
conditions
and
inhibited
by
free
uracil
and
the
Ugi­
inhibitor.
In
addition
cUNG
activity
was
strongly
dependent
on
the
NaCl­
concentration,
a
feature
seen
for
many
DNA­
interacting
enzymes
(
von
Hippel
&
Berg,
1989;
Carey
&
Strauss,
1999).
This
was
the
first
LNG
characterized
from
a
fish
species.
Previously
an
UNG
was
purified
from
a
psychrophilic
bacteria
(
BMTU
3346)
(
Sobek
et
al.,
1996).
This
UNG
was
more
heat­
labile
than
the
E.
coli
enzyme,
but
other
characteristics,
such
as
specific
activity,
catalytic
efficiency
or
a
sequence,
were
not
described.
Thus,
limited
information
of
other
cold
adapted
UNGs
is
available.
Atlantic
cod
UNG
(
BUNG)
was
cloned
from
cod
liver
cDNA
using
RACE
and
the
catalytic
domain
was
expressed
in
E.
coli.
The
recombinant
enzyme
(
rcUNG)
was
found
to
be
similar
to
the
native
enzyme
purified
from
cod
liver
with
respect
to
optimum
conditions
and
pH­
and
temperature
stability
(
Paper
I
and
II).
Both
the
native
and
recombinant
cUNG
was
more
pH­
and
temperature
labile,
and
had
a
higher
catalytic
efficiency
compared
to
a
recombinant
human
UNG.
The
higher
catalytic
efficiency
was
due
to
both
a
higher
turnover
number
(
k
sub(
cat))
and
a
higher
affinity
for
the
substrate
(
lower
K
sub(
M))
(
Paper
II).
Higher
catalytic
efficiency
and
lower
stability
as
observed
for
cod
UNG,
are
typical
features
characteristic
for
cold
adapted
enzymes
(
Smalaas,
et
al.,
2000),
and
this
was
the
first
sequence
of
a
cold
adapted
UNG
and
DNA­
binding
enzyme
characterized.

Beychok,
MR.
1975.
Environmental
Factors
in
Producing
Supplemental
Fuels.
Hydrocarbon
Processing
Vol.
54,
No.
10,
p.
78­
81,
1975.
6
tab,
13
ref.
EPA
68­
03­
2136.

Abstract:
The
degree
of
air
pollution,
water
utilization,
and
noise
that
may
be
generated
by
producing
supplemental
fuels
to
meet
national
energy
needs
are
summarized
and
compared
on
the
basis
of
tons/
unit
product
Btu
output.
The
industrial
processes
considered
are
production
of
synthetic
natural
gas
from
coal,
crude
oil,
and
naphtha;
production
of
liquid
fuels
from
oil
shale;
liquefaction;
importing
liquid
gas
(
LNG)
and
as
methanol;
and
regasification
of
LNG.
It
is
estimated
that
the
extraction
of
8
to
12
millions
tons/
yr
of
coal
will
require
the
surface
mining
of
about
250
to
500
acres/
yr
or
a
total
of
6300
to
15,000
acres
over
a
25
to
30
year
period.
On
the
assumption
that
a
strip
mined
area
can
be
regraded
and
revegetated
within
five
years,
the
maximum
amount
of
land
disturbance
at
any
given
time
would
be
1250
to
2500
acres.
Underground
oil
shale
mining
will
entail
the
disposal
of
approximately
22.5
millions
tons/
yr
of
wet
spent
shale
which
will
pose
a
leaching
hazard,
plus
the
revegetation
and
reclamation
of
the
shale
embankment.
It
is
estimated
that
a
13%
fuel
supplement
to
current
oil
and
gas
demand
would
require
mining
approximately
1
billion
tons/
yr
of
coal
and
oil
shale
and
might
involve
almost
400,000
acres
of
land
over
a
20
to
25
year
span.
(
Auen­
Wisconsin).

University
of
Southern
California,
Los
Angeles.
1974.
Allan
Hancock
Foundation.
Marine
Studies
of
San
Pedro
Bay,
California.
Part
III.
Thermal
Tolerance
and
Sediment
Toxicity
Studies.
Available
from
the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield,
VA
22161,
AS
COM­
74­
11120.
Southern
California
University
Sea
Grant
Program,
Report
USC­
SG­
1­
74,
February
1974,
110
P.
D.
F.
Soule
and
M.
Oguri
(
Eds.).
SG­
04­
3­
158­
45.

Abstract:
This
is
the
third
in
a
series
of
marine
studies
of
San
Pedro
Bay,
California.
Emphasis
is
on
thermal
tolerance
and
sediment
toxicity
studies.
The
six
studies
are
titled:
thermal
effects
and
San
Pedro
Bay,
D.
F.
Soule;
preliminary
observations
on
the
lower
minimum
temperature
requirements
of
the
Northern
anchovy,
G.
brewer;
effects
of
subnormal
temperatures
on
some
common
Los
Angeles
harbor
animals,
E.
A.
Norse;
the
effect
of
various
water
temperatures
on
the
survival
and
reproduction
in
polychaetous
annelids:
preliminary
report,
P.
Oshida
and
D.
J.
Reish;
tolerance
of
Littorina
planaxis
and
L.
scutulata
to
temperature
changes
(
Mollusca,
Gastropoda),
D.
Hadley
and
D.
Straughan;
and,
preliminary
investigations
of
the
effects
of
resuspended
sediment
on
two
species
of
benthic
polychaetes
from
Los
Angeles
harbor,
R.
R.
Emerson.
(
see
also
W74­
05708;
W75­
04272;
W75­
03176;
and
5­
06245)
(
see
6­
11794
thru
W76­
11799)
(
NOAA).
WATER
TEMPERATURE
CHANGE
Kolluru,
VS;
Buchak,
EM;
Brinkmann,
PE.
2003.
Hydrodynamic
Modeling
of
Coastal
LNG
Cooling
Water
Discharge.
Journal
of
Energy
Engineering
[
J.
Energy
Eng.].
Vol.
129,
no.
1,
pp.
16­
31.

Summary:
The
evaluation
of
the
mixing
zone
for
a
proposed
expansion
to
a
liquefied
natural
gas
facility
on
the
northeast
coast
of
the
State
of
Qatar
in
support
of
an
environmental
impact
assessment
was
performed
using
the
Generalized
Environmental
Modeling
System
for
Surface
Waters
(
GEMSS).
The
circulating
seawater
at
the
facility
absorbs
heat
during
the
liquefaction
of
natural
gas,
resulting
in
a
maximum
temperature
rise
of
10
degree
C.
The
heated
seawater
is
discharged
through
a
long
canal
into
the
Arabian
Gulf
with
minimum
jet
momentum.
GEMSS
was
calibrated,
verified,
and
then
used
to
model
the
thermal
plume
for
a
proposed
expansion
of
the
facility.
A
probabilistic
approach
for
defining
the
mixing
zone
using
World
Bank
standards
was
developed.
Model
results
show
that
the
thermal
plume
is
vertically
stratified,
with
a
relatively
large
surface
area
and
a
relatively
small
bottom
contact
area.
The
advantage
of
this
design
is
that
it
maximizes
heat
exchange
with
the
atmosphere
by
increasing
the
driving
force
and
isolating
the
temperature
increase
from
benthic
organisms.

McAnally,
WH.
1977.
Model
Study
of
Cool
Water
Discharge
from
Proposed
LNG
Facility,
Los
Angeles
Harbor,
California.
Available
from
the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield
VA
22161
as
AD­
A050
023,
Price
codes:
A09
in
paper
copy,
A01
in
microfiche.
Miscellaneous
Paper
H­
77­
13,
November
1977.
183
p.

Summary:
Physical
hydraulic
model
dye
tests
were
conducted
to
define
near­
field
dilution
of
a
cool­
water
discharge
from
a
proposed
LNG
facility
in
Los
Angeles
Harbor,
California,
and
to
describe
the
far­
field
behavior
of
the
resulting
plume.
(
WES).

Brewer,
GD.
1975.
Thermal
Pollution
in
the
Los
Angeles­
Long
Beach
Harbor:
Consequences
and
Alternatives.
The
Present
and
Future
of
Coasts,
Proceedings
of
the
First
Annual
Conference
of
the
Coastal
Society,
held
at
Arlington,
VA,
November
1975.
p.
171­
176.

Summary:
The
proposed
discharge
of
heated
and
chilled
sea
water
from
an
electric
power
generating
plant
and
a
liquified
natural
gas
(
LNG)
vaporization
plant
respectively,
into
the
Los
Angeles­
Long
Beach
Harbor
raises
questions
about
the
affects
of
these
effluents
on
the
harbor
'
s
unique
biotic
resources.
This
paper
discusses
aspects
of
the
entrainment
through
these
'
once
through
'
heat
exchange
systems
and
the
implications
of
sustained
temperature
alterations
of
the
harbor
'
s
receiving
waters.
Alternatives
to
the
proposed
discharge
of
these
potentially
damaging
thermal
effluents
are
discussed.
(
See
also
W77­
04462)
(
Sinha­
OEIS).

EXAMPLE
OF
A
BASELINE
STUDY
Stickney,
RR;
Miller,
D.
1973.
Chemical
and
biological
survey
of
the
Savannah
River
adjacent
to
Elba
Island.
Tech.
Rep.
Ser.
Georgia
Mar.
Sci.
Cent.
no.
73­
3.
1973.

Abstract:
The
present
study
was
initiated
as
result
of
plans
put
forward
by
the
Southern
Natural
Gas
Co.,
to
construct
a
regassification
plant
on
Elba
Island
in
the
Savannah
River,
where
liquified
natural
gas
(
LNG)
will
be
off­
loaded
from
ships,
regassified
and
piped
to
distribution
centers.
The
initial
plan
called
for
water
from
the
Savannah
River
to
be
pumped
into
the
plant
where
it
would
be
used
to
carry
away
the
thermal
debt
incurred
in
water,
when
returned
to
the
river,
was
expected
to
be
cooled
{
approx}
5{
degree}
F
below
ambient
river
temp.
This
study
was
designed
to
collect
information
on
the
basic
water
chemistry
and
faunal
assemblages
in
the
river
adjacent
to
Elba
Island
prior
to
construction
of
the
plant.
The
results
of
this
study
are
intended
to
provide
a
data
base
for
section
of
the
river
under
presently
existing
conditions
of
pollution
from
domestic,
municipal
and
industrial
sources
against
which
any
environmental
effects
of
the
regassification
operation
may
be
measured
in
the
future.

LNG
SAFETY
ISSUES
Lehr,
W.
and
D.
Simecek­
Beatty,
2004.
Comparison
of
hypothetical
LNG
and
fuel
oil
fires
on
water.
Journal
of
Hazardous
Materials
107:
3­
9.

Abstract
Large
spills
of
refined
petroleum
products
have
been
an
occasional
occurrence
over
the
past
few
decades.
This
has
not
been
true
for
large
spills
of
liquefied
natural
gas
(
LNG).
This
paper
compares
the
likely
similarities
and
differences
between
accidental
releases
from
a
ship
of
sizable
quantities
of
these
different
hydrocarbon
fuels,
their
subsequent
spreading,
and
possible
pool­
fire
behavior.
Quantitative
estimates
are
made
of
the
spread
rate
and
maximum
slick
size,
burn
rate,
and
duration;
effective
thermal
radiation;
and
subsequent
soot
generation.

Fay,
JA.
2003.
Model
of
spills
and
fires
from
LNG
and
oil
tankers.
Journal
of
Hazardous
Materials
[
J.
Hazard.
Mater.].
Vol.
96,
no.
2­
3,
pp.
171­
188.

Summary:
A
comprehensive
model
for
predicting
the
dynamics
of
spills
from
LNG
and
oil
product
tankers
is
constructed
from
fluid
mechanics
principles
and
empirical
properties
of
oil
and
LNG
spills
on
water.
The
analysis
utilizes
the
significant
tanker
hold
and
discharge
flow
area
dimensions
to
specify
the
cargo
liquid
outflow
history
and
the
ensuing
pool
characteristics,
including
the
establishment
of
a
pool
fire.
The
pool
fire
area,
duration,
and
heat
release
rate
are
determined
as
functions
of
the
tanker
cargo
variables.
Examples
of
an
LNG
and
gasoline
spill
show
that
for
likely
discharge
flow
areas
these
spills
may
be
regarded
as
instantaneous,
simplifying
the
evaluation
of
risk
consequences.

Eckhoff,
RK.
1993.
New
safety
issues
when
moving
from
liquid
fuels
to
natural
gas
PROCEEDINGS
OF
ENS
(
ENVIRONMENT
NORTH
SEAS)
'
93
CONFERENCE
HELD
IN
STAVANGER,
24­
27
AUGUST
1993.,
1994,
pp.
304­
306,
Marine
Pollution
Bulletin
[
MAR.
POLLUT.
BULL.],
vol.
29,
no.
6­
12.

Summary:
Natural
gas
(
NG)
is
produced
whenever
organic
matter
is
decomposed
in
the
absence
of
oxygen.
The
main
constituent
of
natural
gas
is
methane.
In
contrast
to
liquid
fuels,
methane
has
a
boiling
point
far
below
normal
ambient
temperatures.
Even
the
critical
temperature
is
well
below
ambient.
Therefore
natural
gas
must
be
stored
either
as
compressed
natural
gas
(
CNG)
at
very
high
pressures
at
ambient
temperatures,
or
as
liquefied
natural
gas
(
LNG)
at
very
low
temperatures.
The
basic
safety
issues
are
caused
by
loss
of
confinement
of
either
CNG
or
LNG.
In
both
cases
the
issues
are:
global
greenhouse
effects
of
natural
gas
(
methane);
local
fire
and
explosion
hazards;
and
local
asphyxiation
hazard
due
to
reduced
oxygen
content
in
the
atmosphere
breathed
when
air
is
mixed
with
methane.

Serag­
Eldin,
MA.
1988.
Computation
of
NG
spread
following
very
large
LNG
spills
from
ship
tankers.
Applied
Mathematical
Modelling
[
APPL.
MATH.
MODEL.],
vol.
12,
no.
3,
pp.
238­
248.

Summary:
The
paper
presents
a
computational
model
for
the
numerical
prediction
of
the
natural
gas
concentration
in
the
atmosphere
surrounding
an
LNG
ship
tanker,
following
an
accidental
release
of
a
very
large
volume
of
the
carried
LNG
liquid.
The
computations
made
are
fully
three­
dimensional
and
time­
dependent
and
necessarily
cover
a
large
volume
of
the
physical
space.
Sample
results
are
displayed
for
a
typical
10,000­
m
super
(
3)
spill,
and
are
demonstrated
to
be
plausible
and
effective.

Blackmore,
DR;
Eyre,
JA;
Summers,
GG.
1982.
Dispersion
and
combustion
behavior
of
gas
clouds
resulting
from
large
spillages
of
LNG
and
LPG
on
to
the
sea.
TRANS.
INST.
MAR.
ENG.,
vol.
92,
no.
29,
pp.
2­
18.

Summary:
A
high
standard
of
safety
is
essential
in
all
stages
of
the
supply
of
LNG/
LPG,
from
producing
well
to
customer.
This
is
particularly
important
during
the
marine
transportation
phase
as
the
demand
for
large
quantities
of
refrigerated
gas
inevitably
falls
in
industrial
and
urban
areas
and
ships
are
usually
required
to
discharge
in
ports
nearby.
Although
to
date
a
major
marine
spillage
has
not
occurred,
there
has
been
much
speculation
about
the
possible
consequences
of
such
a
spillage
to
both
the
ship
and
its
surroundings.
To
help
clarify
what
would
happen
if
a
spillage
did
occur,
a
series
of
experiments
was
conducted
at
Maplin
Sands
during
the
summer
of
1980,
during
which
LNG
and
refrigerated
propane
were
released
on
to
the
sea
in
quantities
of
up
to
20
m
super(
3).
Measurements
were
made
of
gas
concentration
in
the
vapour
cloud
as
it
dispersed
from
each
spill.
In
several
cases
the
vapour
cloud
was
deliberately
ignited,
to
enable
the
intensity
of
heat
radiation
and
pressures
generated
by
the
flame
to
be
measured.
Comprehensive
photographic
records
were
also
made.
The
results
of
the
work
are
discussed
and
indications
are
given
of
the
way
in
which
they,
along
with
some
of
the
results
of
other
parts
of
a
more
widely
based
safety
R&
D
programme,
will
be
used.

Blackmore,
DR;
Eyre,
JA;
Summers,
GG.
1982.
Gas
Spillage
Incidents
on
Trial.
Dock
&
Harbour
Authority
[
DOCK.
HARBOUR
AUTH.],
vol.
63,
no.
739,
pp.
99­
102.

Abstract:
The
releasing
of
large
gas
clouds
on
to
the
sea
surface,
and
subsequent
combustion
of
this
gas
can
have
a
devastating
effect.
This
article
describes
the
results
of
one
of
the
most
important
trials
ever
conducted
in
the
investigation
of
large
scale
gas
spillages,
the
experiments
were
carried
out
by
Shell
during
the
summer
of
1980.
The
hazard
which
arises
from
an
accidental
spill
of
refrigerated
gas
on
to
the
sea
is
primarily
one
of
combustion.
Early
ignition,
before
the
liquid
has
had
time
to
evaporate
and
disperse,
would
result
in
a
pool
fire
in
the
vicinity
of
the
spill
point.
Ermak,
DL;
Koopman,
RP;
McRae,
TG;
Hogan,
WJ.
1982.
LNG
spill
experiments:
Dispersion,
RPT,
and
vapor
burn
analysis.
Lawrence
Livermore
National
Lab.,
CA
(
USA).
30
pp.

Abstract:
Lawrence
Livermore
National
Laboratory
(
LLNL)
is
conducting
safety
research
under
the
sponsorship
of
the
US
Department
of
Energy
(
DOE)
to
determine
the
possible
consequences
of
liquefied
natural
gas
(
LNG)
spills.
The
LLNL
program
includes
both
the
collection
of
data
from
various
size
experiments
and
development
of
an
ensemble
of
computer
models
to
make
predictions
for
conditions
under
which
tests
cannot
be
performed.
In
spills
of
40
cubic
metres
(
m
exp
3)
of
liquefied
natural
gas
onto
water
done
at
the
Naval
Weapons
Center
(
NWC),
China
Lake,
California
in
1980
and
1981,
data
was
collected
on
gas
cloud
dispersion
and
combusion
and
rapid
phase
transition
(
RPT)
explosions.
Analysis
of
the
data
from
these
tests,
including
comparisons
between
the
predictions
of
various
models
and
the
data,
are
presented.

Hogan,
WJ.
1982.
Determining
the
potential
damage
from
LNG
vapor­
cloud
fires:
What
are
the
unanswered
questions?.
Lawrence
Livermore
National
Lab.,
CA,
(
USA).
14
pp.

Abstract:
When
LNG
spills
in
an
accident
but
is
not
ignited
immediately,
the
vapor
cloud
will
mix
with
air
and
form
a
combustible
mixture
whose
size,
shape,
and
homogeneity
depends
on
the
amount
of
material
spilled,
the
rate
of
vapor
evolution,
and
the
atmospheric
and
environmental
conditions.
If
the
combustible
mixture
subsequently
ignites,
damage
can
result
from
overpressure
or
thermal
energy.
Overpressure
can
be
generated
if
there
is
either
direct
shock
initiation
of
a
detonation
or
if
there
is
sufficient
flame
acceleration.
Discussion
on
damage
from
thermal
energy
is
divided
into
two
categories,
that
occurring
within
the
burn
zone
itself
and
that
occuring
outside
of
it.
Results
of
experiments
on
flame
acceleration
and
thermal
damage
are
discussed.
Recommendations
are
made
for
further
research.

Thyer,
AM.
2003.
A
review
of
data
on
spreading
and
vaporization
of
cryogenic
liquid
spills.
Journal
of
hazardous
materials,
2003
Apr
4,
99(
1):
31­
40.

Abstract:
This
review
summarizes
the
availability
and
utility
of
experimental
data
on
the
rates
of
spread
and
vaporization
of
spillages
of
pressure
liquefied
and
cryogenic
liquids
on
a
variety
of
surfaces
including:
soil;
sand;
concrete;
and
water.
It
is
intended
that
the
paper
acts
as
a
review
of
those
sources
of
information
that
can
be
used
to
allow
the
validation
of
current
and
future
computer
software
which
is
to
be
used
to
predict
the
likely
effects
of
such
spillages,
and
also
to
extend
the
range
of
materials
to
which
it
may
be
applied.
The
majority
of
investigations
found
cover
LNG
or
LPG,
due
to
their
widespread
bulk
usage,
with
others
studying
liquid
nitrogen,
oxygen,
hydrogen,
or
ammonia.

Havens,
JA.
1977.
Predictability
of
LNG
Vapor
Dispersion
from
Catastrophic
Spills
Onto
Water:
An
Assessment.
Available
from
the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield
VA
22161
as
ADA040
525,
Price
codes:
A10
in
paper
copy,
A01
in
microfiche.
Coast
Guard
Office
of
Merchant
Marine
Safety,
Cargo
and
Hazardous
Materials
Division
Report
No.
CG­
M­
09­
77,
April
1977.
113
p,
8
fig,
8
tab,
42
ref,
2
append.

Abstract:
Mathematical
models
which
have
been
used
to
predict
the
downwind
travel
of
flammable
gas
mixtures
in
the
event
of
a
catastrophic
spill
of
liquefied
natural
gas
into
water
are
reviewed.
In
the
event
of
a
catastrophic
release
it
is
considered
highly
likely
that
an
immediate
fire
would
ensue.
However,
in
the
event
that
ignition
did
not
occur
immediately,
an
LNG
vapor
cloud
would
form
over
and
downwind
of
the
spill
site.
Wide
disagreement
regarding
the
extent
of
travel
(
and
the
accompanying
possible
public
exposure)
of
the
flammable
portion
of
such
a
cloud
has
contributed
to
an
apparently
growing
concern
regarding
the
risks
asociated
with
LNG
importation.
The
scope
of
this
review
was
limited
to
the
predictability
of
dispersion
from
a
very
large
LNG
spill
on
water.
No
consideration
was
given
to
sitespecific
factors
such
as
topographical
features
and
structures.
Likewise,
no
consideration
was
given
to
specific
applicability
of
weather
conditions,
since
this
would
depend
on
the
site
involved
as
well
as
the
traffic
control
measures
which
are
imposed.
(
Sinha
­
OEIS).

Jettisoning
of
LNG
at
Sea
 
An
Unresolved
Pollution
Hazard.
1975.
Marine
Week.
Vol
2,
No.
5,
p.
23.,
January
31,
1975.

Abstract:
Liquefied
natural
gas
(
LNG)
may
be
spilled
or
jettisoned
onto
the
ocean
as
a
result
of
collision
damage
or
if
there
is
a
need
to
lighten
a
LNG
carrier,
such
as
a
disabled
vessel.
A
possible
source
of
leakage
is
if
liquefied
natural
gas
is
allowed
to
contact
the
structural
steel
of
a
hull
during
loading,
the
cryogenic
temperature
might
lead
to
an
eventual
brittle
fracture.
Tests
on
LNG
spillage
have
been
conducted
by
the
Bureau
of
Mines,
the
U.
S.
Coast
Guard
and
the
American
Gas
Association.
Results
showed
vaporization
effects
and
indicated
that
the
ignition
point
for
an
explosion
is
dependent
upon
the
ration
of
propane
to­
ethane.
A
discharge
of
10,000
cu
m
would
form
a
cloud
20
feet
deep
and
a
mile
wide
in
less
than
fifteen
minutes.
If
such
a
cloud
should
drift
over
other
vessels,
an
oil
terminal,
or
a
city,
while
burning,
serious
danger
would
exist.
Another
pollution
hazard
with
LNG
is
the
disposal
of
the
boil­
off,
especially
when
the
carrier
is
in
the
harbor.
Arguments
in
favor
of
atmospheric
venting
of
LNG
insist
that
the
methane
content
is
below
the
explosive
limit
and
that
discharge
is
heated
and
its
density
is
lower
than
that
of
air.
Port
authorities
argue
that
no
matter
how
much
preheating,
if
there
is
an
inversion
over
the
port,
gas
will
not
rise.
Since
1974,
the
U.
S.
Coast
Guard
has
prohibited
LNG
venting
in
port.
(
Prague­
Firl).

Crouch,
WW;
Hillyer,
JC.
1972.
What
Happens
When
LNG
Spills.
Chemtech,
P
210­
215,
April
1972.

Abstract:
Plans
for
transporting
liquified
natural
gas
(
LNG)
from
producing
countries
to
gas­
short
nations
are
in
the
making.
Since
the
transportation
of
LNG
could
lead
to
accidents
and
spillage
it
is
important
to
know
how
the
gas
behaves
during
and
after
a
spill.
Modern
tankers
carrying
LNG
will
be
double­
hull
membrane
vessels
which
can
withstand
a
severe
collision
without
rupturing
the
inner
LNG­
containing
wall.
Furthermore,
the
ships
will
employ
extensive
fire
fighting
equipment
for
the
engine,
pump
rooms,
upper
deck
and
pipe
lines.
If
LNG
should
be
accidentally
spilled
on
water
it
will
evaporate
at
a
steady
rate;
with
large
spills
this
may
take
several
minutes.
The
principle
hazard
in
a
large
LNG
spill
lies
in
the
formation
of
a
combustible
vapor
that
will
envelop
the
spill,
drift
downwind,
and
remain
near
the
surface
until
it
is
diluted
and
warmed.
If
this
vapor
should
come
in
contact
with
an
ignition
source
a
fire
would
occur,
propagating
backwards
through
the
combustible
region.
(
ENSIGN­
PAI).

TECHNOLOGIES
Graef,
MK;
Hillenbrand,
H­
G;
Heckmann,
CJ;
Niederhoff,
KA.
2004.
High­
strength
Largediameter
Pipe
for
Long­
distance
High­
pressure
Gas
Pipelines.
International
Journal
of
Offshore
and
Polar
Engineering
[
Int.
J.
Offshore
Polar
Eng.].
Vol.
14,
no.
1,
pp.
69­
74.

Summary:
The
energy
scenario
has
been
changing
quickly
in
recent
years.
International
studies
forecast
that
the
demand
for
natural
gas
will
be
nearly
doubled
by
2030,
and
the
ever
increasing
demand
for
natural
gas
will
further
influence
the
type
of
its
transportation,
both
from
the
strategic
and
economic
points
of
view.
While
long­
distance
pipelines
are
a
safe
and
economic
means
of
transporting
gas
from
production
sites
to
end
users,
the
distance
between
sites
and
end
users
increases,
emphasizing
the
need
for
the
construction
of
complex
gas­
transportation
pipeline
networks
when
the
use
of
LNG
tankers
is
impossible
or
uneconomical.
This
will
make
high­
pressure
natural
gas
transportation
via
pipelines
increasingly
challenging.
The
use
of
X80­
grade
linepipe
has
already
been
shown
to
result
in
substantial
cost
savings;
this
paper
presents
the
results
of
tests
on
X80­
grade
production
pipe
supplied
for
onshore
and
offshore
projects.
But
the
economic
transport
of
gas
over
very
long
distances
requires
additional
cost
cuts,
and
the
use
of
X100­
and/
or
X120­
grade
linepipe
could
be
a
solution.
Thus,
this
paper
addresses
the
benefits
of
using
high­
strength
linepipe
and
the
present­
day
technical
limitations
on
its
production.
In
addition,
laboratory
and
production
results
regarding
high­
strength
large­
diameter
pipes
are
presented
to
describe
the
material
properties
as
well
as
the
service
behavior.
Girth
welding
procedures
covering
mechanized
and
manual
methods
have
already
been
developed.

Tuyen,
NV;
Regnaud,
P.
1983.
Problems
and
solutions
for
pipelining
LNG.
OIL
AND
GAS
J.,
vol.
81,
no.
4,
pp.
69­
70.

Summary:
An
engineering
program
and
a
test
program
are
being
carried
out
to
determine
the
technical
and
economic
feasibility
of
long­
distance
LNG
pipelining.
This
article
updates
the
latest
findings.

Beychok,
MR.
1975.
Process
and
Environmental
Technology
for
Producing
SNG
and
Liquid
Fuels.
Available
from
the
National
Technical
Information
Service,
Springfield
VA
22161
as
PB­
242
774,
Price
codes:
A08
in
paper
copy,
A01
in
microfiche.
Prepared
for
the
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Robert
S.
Kerr
Environmental
Research
Laboratory,
National
Environmental
Research
Center,
Ada,
Oklahoma,
May
1975.
143
p,
14
fig,
16
tab.
EPA­
660/
2­
75­
011,
68­
03­
2136.

Abstract:
The
report
explains
processes
and
technology
currently
available
for
(
1)
producing
substitute
natural
gas
(
SNG)
from
coal,
crude
oil
and
naphta,
(
2)
transport
of
gas
supplies
in
the
form
of
liquified
natural
gas
(
LNG)
or
as
liquid
methanol
and
regasification
of
LNG,
(
3)
the
conversion
of
coal
into
low
sulfur
oil,
and
(
4)
the
production
of
low­
sulfur
oil
from
oil
shale.
Written
for
agencies
concerned
with
environmental
regulations
for
industries
producing
and
transportating
alternative
energy
supplies,
environmental
factors
of
the
process
technologies
are
emphasized
rather
than
detailed
technical
design
factors.
Production
technology
is
analyzed
to
determine
environmental
variables
such
as
heat
balances,
combustion,
stack
gas
and
emissions,
and
water
balances,
including
effluent
water
discharge
(
blowdowns
and
wastewater).
Key
environmental
factors
for
each
technology
discussed
are:
(
1)
SNG
from
LPG
and/
or
naphta­­
combustion
stack
gas,
CO2
vent
gas,
and
effluent
water
discharges
(
blowdowns
and
wastewater);
(
2)
SNG
from
coal­­
thermal
efficiency,
SO2
emissions
to
the
air,
water
consumption
and
deposition,
mining
operations
and
subsequent
land
reclamation;
(
3)
SNG
from
crude
oil­­
thermal
efficiency,
water
consumption
and
disposition,
and
SO2
emissions;
(
4)
LNG
(
Liquification
at
source)­­
thermal
efficiency;
(
5)
LNG
(
Gasification
at
market)­­
thermal
efficiency;
(
6)
methanol
fuel­­
large
fresh
water
usage
for
cooling;
(
7)
liquid
fuels
from
oil
shale­­
SO2,
NOx
and
particulate
emissions,
water
requirement
and
disposition,
spent
shale
disposal,
and
mining
impacts;
(
8)
coal
liquification
and
gasification­­
specific
information
depends
on
the
technology
used.
(
Gentry­
NC).

OTHER
LNG
LITERATURE
OF
INTEREST
Bomelburg,
HJ;
Counts,
CA;
Cowan,
CE;
Davis,
WE;
DeSteese,
JG.
1982.
LNG
annotated
bibliography.
Battelle
Pacific
Northwest
Labs.,
Richland,
WA
(
USA).
TECH.
REP.
BATTELLE
PAC.
NORTHWEST
LABS.,
BPNL,
RICHLAND,
WA
(
USA),
175
pp.

Abstract:
This
document
updates
the
bibliography
published
in
Liquefied
Gaseous
Fuels
Safety
and
Environmental
Control
Assessment
Program:
third
status
report
(
PNL­
4172)
and
is
a
complete
listing
of
literature
reviewed
and
reported
under
the
LNG
Technical
Surveillance
Task.
The
bibliography
is
organized
alphabetically
by
author.

Bragg,
DM;
Whitehorn,
NC;
Schmidt,
BG.
1975.
Market
Demand
and
General
Location
Options.
Evaluation
of
Multi­
Purpose
Offshore
Industrial­
Port
Islands:
General
Island
Characteristics
',
Delaware
Univ.
Final
Tech.
Rept.
to
NSF­
RANN
No.
NSF­
RE­
E­
75­
054A,
p
1­
169,
May
1975.
38
fig,
44
tab,
81
ref.
GI­
43111.

Abstract:
Serious
consideration
of
offshore
artificial
islands
as
locations
for
various
service
and
heavy
industrial
facilities
must
start
with
an
examination
of
several
industry
sectors
in
order
to
make
a
reasonable
determination
of
the
most
likely
candidates
for
island
occupancy.
Attention
must
also
be
directed
to
the
social,
economic
and
physical
conditions
existing
in
each
geographical
region
under
consideration
to
determine
how
these
interact
with
the
social,
economic
and
physical
characteristics
of
each
sector
of
industry
to
be
a
candidate
for
artificial
island
location
in
a
particular
geographic
region.
It
was
found
that
an
industry
which
might
be
a
candidate
on
the
East
or
Gulf
coast
was
not
always
a
candidate
on
both
coasts
due
to
significant
differences
in
economic,
environmental
and
social
conditions
in
the
two
areas.
Among
the
many
sectors
of
industry
which
were
reviewed,
eleven
significant
ones
were
studied
in
detail.
These
are:
petroleum
refining;
petrochemicals
manufacturing;
electric
power
generation;
deepwater
terminals;
liquefied
natural
gas
(
LNG)
regasification;
urban
solid
waste
processing
and
disposal;
fertilizer
manufacturing;
and
paper
manufacturing.
(
See
also
W77­
05377)
(
Sinha­
OEIS).

Heckard,
JM;
Woodford,
DL.
1974.
Environmental
Studies
for
Major
Offshore
Developments.
In:
Sixth
Annual
Offshore
Technology
Conference,
May
6­
8,
1974,
Houston,
Texas.
Preprints,
Volume
II,
1974.
Paper
No
OTC
2097,
P
635­
640,
4
REF.

Abstract:
Major
offshore
developments
initiated
or
planned
in
recent
years
to
ease
the
energy
crisis
include
mono­
buoys
and
docking
islands
for
VLCCS
and
offshore
nuclear
power
plants.
Legislative
requirements
for
environmental
studies
needed
for
licensing
of
such
facilities
is
discussed
as
well
as
the
scope
of
work
needed
for
comprehensive
environmental
evaluations.
Emphasis
is
placed
on
special
considerations
such
as
oil
and
LNG
spills
and
movements,
and
dredging.
Experience
gained
in
ongoing
studies
will
be
of
importance
in
planning
similar
projects.
The
objective
of
this
paper
is
to
address
environmental
conservation
in
light
of
new
and
major
offshore
developments.
(
See
also
W76­
09333)
(
SINHA­
OEIS).
LNG
INFORMATION
FROM
CONFERENCES
Soebarto,
J;
McClary,
TG.
1983.
Problems
with
sea
water
cooling
at
the
bontang
LNG
plant.
Liquefied
Natural
Gas,
7th
International
Conference
(
LNG­
7),
Jakarta,
Indonesia,
15­
19
May
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
832
0104).

Winderickx,
J.
1983.
Siting
and
safety
aspects
in
the
design
of
the
LNG
terminal
 
zeebrugge.
Liquefied
Natural
Gas,
7th
International
Conference
(
LNG­
7),
Jakarta,
Indonesia,
15­
19
May
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
832
0104).

Salvadori,
A;
LeDiraison,
JC;
Nedelka,
D.
1983.
Contribution
to
the
study
of
LNG
spills
on
seawater.
Liquefied
Natural
Gas,
7th
International
Conference
(
LNG­
7),
Jakarta,
Indonesia,
15­
19
May
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
832
0104).

Dossmann,
U;
Caspers,
H;
Partenscky,
HW.
1983.
Effects
of
recycling
cold
seawater
from
LNG
vaporizer
on
the
biotope
of
a
bay.
Liquefied
Natural
Gas,
7th
International
Conference
(
LNG­
7),
Jakarta,
Indonesia,
15­
19
May
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
832
0104).

Bellofatto,
O;
Galli,
A;
Casmirri,
C.
1983.
H.
T.
closed
cycle
development
for
energy
saving
in
LNG
terminal.
Gas
Turbine
28th
International
Conference
&
Exhibit,
Phoenix,
AZ
(
USA),
27­
31
Mar
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
831
0013).

Antonelli,
A.
1983.
Desalinated
water
production
at
LNG
terminals.
Desalination
and
Water
Re­
Use,
1st
World
Congress,
Florence,
Italy,
23­
27
May
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
832
0306).

Roopchand,
DR.
1983.
Prediction
of
the
effects
from
spills
of
LNG.
Canadian
Chemical
Engineering
33rd
Conference,
Toronto,
Ontario,
Canada,
2­
5
Oct
83.
(
World
Meeting
Number
834
0041).

Mankekar,
AD
.
1987.
LNG
vaporization.
Tenth
Annual
Energy
Sources
Technology
Conference
and
Exhibition,
Dallas,
TX
(
USA),
15­
18
Feb
1987.
(
World
Meeting
Number
871
5007).

West,
H;
Pfenning,
DB.
1994.
LNG
catastrophic
releases;
comparison
of
NFAP­
59A
and
49­
CFR­
193.
5th
Annual
Environmental,
Safety
&
Health
Conference
&
Exhibition
for
the
Oil,
Gas
and
Petrochemical
Industries,
Houston,
TX
(
USA),
25­
27
Jan
1994.
(
World
Meeting
Number
941
0440).
MEMORANDUM:
"
Potential
Impacts
of
Liquid
Natural
Gas
Processing
Facilities
on
Fishery
Organism
in
the
Gulf
of
Mexico".
Prepared
by
the
Fisheries
Science
Center
of
the
South
East
Region.

robat
Docum
USEFUL
WEB
SITES
CONTAINING
INFORMATION
REGARDING
LNG
AND
RELATED
FACILITIES
1.
EPA
Site:
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
waterscience/
316b/
ph2.
htm
Useful
documents
found
in
this
site
include:

a)
"
Regional
Analysis":
Provides
a
description
of
the
methodologies
EPA
used
to
quantify
and
monetize
the
benefits
from
the
Phase
II
rule
for
cooling
water
intake
structures.

Content
of
this
document:

Cover,
Table
of
Contents
Introduction
Part
A:
Evaluation
Methods
Chapter
A1:
Ecological
Risk
Assessment
Framework
Chapter
A2:
Everything
You
Ever
Wanted
to
Know
about
Fish
Chapter
A3:
Other
Vulnerable
Aquatic
Organisms
Chapter
A4:
Direct
and
Indirect
Effects
of
CWIS
on
Birds
Chapter
A5:
Methods
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
Chapter
A6:
Uncertainty
Chapter
A7:
Entrainment
Survival
Chapter
A8:
Impingement
&
Entrainment
by
Waterbody
Type
Chapter
A9:
Economic
Benefit
Categories
and
Valuation
Methods
Chapter
A10:
Methods
for
Estimating
Commercial
Fishing
Benefits
Chapter
A11:
Estimating
Benefits
with
a
Random
Utility
Model
Chapter
A12:
Non­
Use
Meta­
Analysis
Methodology
Chapter
A13:
Threatened
&
Endangered
Species
Analysis
Methods
Chapter
A14:
Discounting
Benefits
Chapter
A15:
Habitat
Based
Methodology
for
Estimating
Non­
Use
Values
Appendix
A1:

Part
B:
California
Chapter
B1:
Background
Chapter
B2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
California
Chapter
B3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
B4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
B5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Chapter
B6:
Threatened
and
Endangered
Species
Analysis
Appendix
B1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
Northern
and
Southern
California
Regions
Appendix
B2:
Valuing
Water
Use
Foregone
Appendix
B3:
Special
Status
Species
Population
Estimates
Part
C:
North
Atlantic
Chapter
C1:
Background
Chapter
C2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
North
Atlantic
Region
Chapter
C3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
C4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
C5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Chapter
C6:
Habitat
Based
Analysis
Appendix
C1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
North
Atlantic
Region
Appendix
C2:
Scaling
of
Habitat
Restoration
Part
D:
Mid­
Atlantic
Region
Chapter
D1:
Background
Chapter
D2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
Mid­
Atlantic
Region
Chapter
D3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
D4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
D5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Chapter
D6:
Habitat
Based
Analysis
Appendix
D1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
Mid­
Atlantic
Region
Part
E:
South
Atlantic
Chapter
E1:
Background
Chapter
E2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
South
Atlantic
Region
Chapter
E3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
E4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
E5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Part
F:
Gulf
of
Mexico
Chapter
F1:
Background
Chapter
F2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
Gulf
of
Mexico
Chapter
F3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
F4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
F5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Appendix
F1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
Gulf
of
Mexico
Region
Part
G:
The
Great
Lakes
Chapter
G1:
Background
Chapter
G2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
Great
Lakes
Region
Chapter
G3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
G4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
G5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Chapter
G6:
Habitat
Based
Analysis
Appendix
G1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
Great
Lakes
Region
Appendix
G2:
Scaling
Habitat
Restoration
Part
H:
The
Inland
Region
Chapter
H1:
Background
Chapter
H2:
Evaluation
of
Impingement
and
Entrainment
in
the
Inland
Region
Chapter
H3:
Commercial
Fishing
Valuation
Chapter
H4:
RUM
Analysis
Chapter
H5:
Non­
Use
Benefits
Appendix
H1:
Life
History
Parameter
Values
Used
to
Evaluate
I&
E
in
the
Inland
Region
Part
I:
National
Benefits
Chapter
I1:
National
Benefits
Glossary
References
b)
"
Technical
Development
Document":
Describes
available
water
intake
technologies
and
their
costs.

Content
of
this
document:

Cover,
Table
of
Contents
Chapter
1:
Technology
Cost
Modules
Chapter
2:
Costing
Methodology
for
Model
Facilities
Chapter
3:
Cost­
Cost
Test
Chapter
4:
Efficacy
of
Cooling
Water
Intake
Structure
Technologies
Attachment
A
to
Chapter
4:
Cooling
Water
Intake
Structure
Technology
Fact
Sheets
c)
"
Economic
and
Benefits
Analysis":
Describes
an
analysis
of
the
overall
economic
impact
of
the
EPA's
Phase
II
rule
on
industry
(
specifically
the
power
generation
industry)
in
the
US.

Content
of
this
document:

Cover,
Table
of
Contents
Part
A:
Background
Information
Chapter
A1:
Introduction
and
Overview
Chapter
A2:
Need
for
the
Regulation
Chapter
A3:
Profile
of
the
Electric
Power
Industry
Part
B:
Costs
and
Economic
Impacts
Chapter
B1:
Summary
of
Compliance
Costs
Chapter
B2:
Cost
Impact
Analysis
Chapter
B3:
Electricity
Market
Model
Analysis
Chapter
B4:
Regulatory
Flexibility
Analysis
Chapter
B5:
UMRA
Analysis
Chapter
B6:
Other
Administrative
Requirements
Part
C:
National
Benefits
Chapter
C1:
Regional
Approach
Chapter
C2:
Summary
of
Current
Losses
Due
to
I&
E
Chapter
C3:
Monetized
Benefits
Part
D:
National
Benefit­
Cost
Analysis
Chapter
D1:
Comparison
of
Costs
and
Benefits
2.
Border
Power
Plant
Working
Group
Site:
http://
www.
borderpowerplants.
org/
news_
and_
events.
htm
This
site
provides
presentations
slides
and
general
information
about
the
Global
LNG
Summit
held
in
San
Diego
on
June
1st,
2004,
as
well
as
information
from
other
LNG
workshop
presentations.

Contents
listed
on
this
web
site
include:

Global
LNG
Summit
Presentations
­
June
1,
2004
Overview:
LNG
and
the
Californias:
Bill
Powers,
P.
E.
Border
Power
Plant
Working
Group
Russia:
Sakhalin
LNG,
Shell
and
Mitsubishi:
Rory
Cox,
Pacific
Environment
Indonesia:
Tangguh
Sarah
Soakai
and
Chris
Pesenti,
Pro
Peninsula
Bolivia:
Politics
of
LNG:
Jorge
Cortes,
CEADES
(
Bolivia)
Mobile
Bay:
ExxonMobile:
Casi
Calloway,
Mobile
Baykeeper
Long
Beach
Harbor
and
Mitsubishi:
Bry
Myown,
Long
Beach
Citizens
for
Utility
Reform
ChevronTexaco:
Australia
to
Baja
California:
Dr.
Alfonso
Aguirre,
Conservación
de
Islas
(
Mexico)
LNG
and
California:
Efficiency
and
Renewable
Energy:
Cliff
Chen,
Synapse
Energy
Economics
LNG
Plants
and
Terminals:
Safety
and
Risk:
Dr.
Jerry
Havens,
LNG
risk
evaluation
expert
Camisea
Natural
Gas
Project:
Atossa
Soltani,
Amazon
Watch
Institute
of
the
Americas
Presentation
­
January
30,
2004
Presentation
on
LNG
terminal
risk
and
safety
considerations
Long
Beach
LNG
Workshop
Presentations
­
January
16,
2004/
November
17,
2003
LNG
in
Long
Beach
Harbor
­
Risk,
Air
Quality,
and
Natural
Gas
Pricing
­
B.
Powers
ARB
NOx
and
PM10
Diesel
Emission
Projections,
2001
­
2008
(
ARB
2001
presentation)
SoCalGas/
SDGE
Natural
Gas
Demand
Projection,
2006
­
2016
­
(
SoCalGas/
SDGE
paper
presented
at
CPUC/
CEC
Dec.
2003
natural
gas
demand
workshop)
Long
Beach
LNG
­
Technology
Options
and
Financial
Issues
­
B.
Powers
(
11/
17/
03)
Fire
Radiation
and
Flammable
Vapor
Cloud
Drift
Maps
­
Vallejo
LNG
Safety
Risk
Results
Overlaid
on
Long
Beach
Harbor
­
E.
Ducharme
(
01/
16/
04
and
11/
17/
03)

Baja
LNG
Workshop
Presentations
­
September
12,
2003,
San
Diego
Energy
Facilities
and
the
Baja
Community
­
C.
Garcia
Zendejas
Energía
y
Ciudadanos
­
C.
Garcia
Zendejas
Unique
Plant
Ecology
of
Costa
Azul
(
Baja
Coast)
­
C.
Leyva
(
Spanish)
Vallejo
Experience
with
LNG
Terminal
Siting
­
E.
Ducharme
Baja
LNG
Technology
and
Financial
Issues
­
B.
Powers
Costa
Azul:
Un
paisaje
cultural
bajo
amenaza
­
M.
Wilken
Baja
Norte
Pipeline
Construction
and
Impact
on
Native
Cultural
Sites
­
M.
Wilken
Baja
Norte
Pipeline
construction
photos
­
M.
Wilken
DOE
Assessments
of
LNG
Accident
Impacts
DOE
LNG
accident
impact
presentation,
February
2002
Results
of
LNG
tanker
and
storage
tank
accident
modeling,
October
2001,
Quest
Consultants
for
DOE
Review
of
LNG
accident
modeling
protocols
and
studies,
October
2001,
Quest
Consultants
for
DOE
3.
MMS
Publication:
http://
www.
gomr.
mms.
gov/
homepg/
regulate/
environ/
techsumm/
2003/
2003­
040.
html
Technical
Summary:
MMS
Publication
2003­
040
Marine
and
Coastal
Fishes
Subject
to
Impingement
by
Cooling­
Water
Intake
Systems
in
the
Northern
Gulf
of
Mexico:
An
Annotated
Bibliography
BACKGROUND:
Since
the
early
1970'
s
cooling­
water
intakes
have
been
identified
as
having
a
potential
adverse
impact
on
aquatic
organisms
due
to
impingement/
entrapment
and
entrainment.
The
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA)
is
proposing
a
series
of
new
rules
to
address
the
impingement
and
entrainment
of
fishes
and
shellfish
by
cooling­
water
intake
systems
on
all
surface
waters
of
the
United
States,
including
the
open
ocean.
In
response
to
this
information
need,
MMS
gathered
information
about
the
species
of
fish
in
the
Gulf
of
Mexico
and
about
research
conducted
on
the
impingement
and
entrainment
of
fishes
and
other
organisms
in
coastal
and
marine
ecosystems.

OBJECTIVES:
To
meet
the
information
needs
of
MMS
and
EPA,
this
study
provides
an
annotated
bibliography
that
includes
all
research
conducted
in
marine
and
coastal
waters
concerning
the
impingement
and
entrainment
of
estuarine
and
marine
organisms
by
cooling
water
intake
systems.
The
literature
search
includes
a
brief
summary
of
references
that
address
the
distribution
and
life
histories
of
fish
in
the
Gulf
of
Mexico,
since
this
is
the
resource
that
may
be
impacted
by
cooling
water
intake
systems.

DESCRIPTION:
A
total
of
31,610
documents
were
obtained
through
432
individual
searches
and
each
database
output
was
reviewed
on­
line
to
determine
if
it
contained
relevant
references.
Almost
200
files
containing
references
with
or
without
abstracts
were
scrutinized
and
an
alphabetical
list
of
all
potentially
useful
references
was
prepared.
After
the
bibliography
was
completed,
references
were
reviewed
again,
edited
for
uniformity,
and
sorted
into
four
major
categories
as
follows:
1)
studies
of
fish
impingement/
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes
in
marine
and
estuarine
environments,
2)
studies
related
to
assessment
of
fish
impingement/
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes,
3)
studies
related
to
mitigation
measures
of
fish
impingement/
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes,
and
4)
other
relevant
studies
related
to
fish
impingement/
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes.
Finally,
a
list
of
all
fish
species
subject
to
impingement
or
entrainment,
mentioned
in
the
abstracts
was
prepared
and
additional
information,
such
as
maximum
length
attained
and
ocean
of
occurrence
was
obtained
from
literature.

SIGNIFICANT
CONCLUSIONS:
Most
of
the
results
obtained
through
this
search
were
references
about
studies
on
fish
impingement
or
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes
of
nuclear
or
thermoelectric
power
plants
located
on
estuarine
or
marine
environments.
Only
one
reference
specific
to
fish
impingement
or
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intakes
of
oil
platforms,
Littrell
and
Biaggi
(
1979),
was
actually
found,
which
means
that
such
information
is
generally
unavailable
through
the
searched
data
bases.
However,
it
is
possible
that
some
information
exists
in
unpublished
corporate
documents.

STUDY
RESULTS:
A
total
of
342
references
are
presented
in
this
report
in
four
different
categories:
138
are
references
on
biological
studies
directly
related
to
fish
impingement
or
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intake
systems
in
marine
and
estuarine
environments;
74
are
references
on
mathematical
models
to
assess
fish
impingement
or
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intake
systems,
59
are
references
related
to
mitigation
measures
for
fish
impingement
or
entrainment,
and
71
are
other
relevant
references
on
fish
impingement
or
entrainment
by
cooling­
water
intake
systems
or
closely
related
topics.
A
total
of
95
fish
species
were
found
in
the
abstracts,
including
53
species
found
in
U.
S.
waters
and
10
species
confirmed
in
the
northern
Gulf
of
Mexico.

STUDY
PRODUCT:
Martinez­
Andrade,
F.
and
D.
M.
Baltz.
2003.
Marine
and
Coastal
Fishes
Subject
to
Impingement
by
Cooling­
Water
Intake
Systems
in
the
Northern
Gulf
of
Mexico:
An
Annotated
Bibliography.
U.
S.
Dept.
of
the
Interior,
Minerals
Management
Service,
Gulf
of
Mexico
OCS
Region,
New
Orleans,
LA.
OCS
Study
MMS
2003­
040.
113
pp.

Copies
of
the
technical
report
for
this
study
are
available
through
the:
Minerals
Management
Service
Public
Information
Office
1201
Elmwood
Park
Boulevard
New
Orleans,
Louisiana
70123­
2394
(
504)
736­
2519
(
local)
or
1­
800­
200­
GULF
4.
Maine
Coast
Alert
*
Maine
Coast
Alert
*
Maine
Coast
Alert
LNG
tankers
could
require
reductions
in
Penobscot
Bay
Lobster
fishing
Web
site:
lobsterfishinghttp://
www.
penbay.
org/
penbaylng.
html
This
site
provides
an
example
of
the
potential
impacts
a
LNG
operational
facility
could
have
on
local
fishing
activities,
in
this
case
lobster
fishing
in
Penobscot
Bay,
Maine.

5.
Information
about
water
use
in
United
States
It
provides
useful
information
and
a
snapshot
of
the
cumulative
scale
of
water
withdrawals
in
the
U.
S.

USGS
web
site:
http://
water.
usgs.
gov/
watuse/
