Draft
Report:
Technology
Advances
and
Process
Changes
Prepared
for:

U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency
Engineering
and
Analysis
Division
Office
of
Water
1200
Pennsylvania
Avenue,
NW
Washington
DC
20460
Prepared
by:

Eastern
Research
Group,
Inc.
14555
Avion
Parkway
Suite
200
Chantilly,
VA
20151
March
3,
2003
EPA
Contract
No.
68­
C02­
095
Work
Assignment
0­
05
i
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
1.0
INTRODUCTION
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1­
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1.1
Background
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1­
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1.2
Description
of
Work
Performed
By
ERG
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1­
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1.3
Statement
of
Quality
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1­
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1.4
References
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1­
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2.0
GENERAL
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS
AND
IDENTIFICATION
OF
REVIEWED
INDUSTRIES
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2­
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2.1
General
Economic
Analysis
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2.2
Selection
of
Industries
for
Review
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2­
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2.3
References
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2­
13
3.0
ADDITIONAL
REVIEW
AND
INFORMATION
COLLECTION
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3­
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3.1
Industry­
Focused
Reviews
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3­
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3.2
Across­
Industry
Reviews
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3­
2
4.0
ALUMINUM
INDUSTRY
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4­
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4.1
Overview
of
Industry
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1
4.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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4­
4
4.3
Information
Resources
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4­
6
4.4
References
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4­
7
5.0
CONSTRUCTION
PRODUCTS
INDUSTRY
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5­
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5.1
Overview
of
Industry
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5­
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5.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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5­
3
5.3
Information
Resources
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5­
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5.4
References
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5­
6
6.0
HEALTH
SERVICES
INDUSTRY
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6­
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6.1
Overview
of
Industry
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6­
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6.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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6­
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6.3
Information
Resources
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6­
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6.4
References
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6­
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7.0
INDUSTRIAL
ORGANIC
CHEMICALS
INDUSTRY
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7.1
Overview
of
Industry
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7­
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7.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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7­
3
7.3
Information
Resources
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7­
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7.4
References
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7­
6
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
ii
8.0
OIL
AND
GAS
FIELD
SERVICES
INDUSTRY
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8.1
Overview
of
Industry
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8.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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8­
3
8.3
Information
Resources
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8­
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8.4
References
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8­
7
9.0
PLASTICS
PRODUCTS
MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRY
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9.1
Overview
of
Industry
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9.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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4
9.3
Information
Resources
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9­
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9.4
References
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9­
7
10.0
SEMICONDUCTOR
MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRY
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10.1
Overview
of
Industry
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10.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
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10.3
Information
Resources
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10.4
References
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10­
5
iii
LIST
OF
TABLES
Page
1
Three­
Digit
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
in
Total
Sales,
Shipments,
Receipts,
Revenues
or
Dollar
Value
of
Business
Done
Between
1992
and
1997
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4
2
Three­
Digit
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Decrease
in
Total
Sales,
Shipments,
Receipts,
Revenues
or
Dollar
Value
of
Business
Done
Between
1992
and
1997
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2­
5
3
Four­
Digit
Manufacturing
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
in
Value
of
Shipments
Between
1992
and
19971
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2­
6
4
Department
of
Energy
Industries
of
the
Future
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2­
7
5
Occupations
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
Projected
Between
2000
and
2010
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2­
8
6
Occupations
with
the
Largest
Percent
Decrease
Predicted
Between
2000
and
2010
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2­
9
LIST
OF
FIGURES
Page
1
Breakdown
of
1999
GDP
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2­
2
2
Distribution
of
Aluminum
Net
Shipment
by
Market
­
1995
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3
2001
Plastics
Sales
by
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9­
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1­
2
1.0
INTRODUCTION
This
report
presents
a
review
of
industrial
technology
changes
and
advances
in
pollution
prevention
that
may
impact
the
quantity
and
quality
of
wastewaters
discharged
from
U.
S.
industries.
These
advances
were
identified
by
evaluation
of
information
readily
available
from
government
sources
and
industry
and
other
publications.

1.1
Background
EPA
is
required
by
Section
304(
m)
of
the
Clean
Water
Act
(
CWA)
to
publish
a
list
of
industrial
categories
that
will
be
subject
to
new
or
revised
limitations
guidelines
and
standards
(
ELGs)
on
a
biennial
basis.
In
preparation
for
its
2004/
2005
biennial
plan,
EPA
has
been
investigating
new
approaches
for
reviewing
existing
ELGs
and
identifying
new
ELGs.

EPA's
draft
Strategy
for
National
Clean
Water
Industrial
Regulations
outlines
a
planning
process
"
to
review
national
effluent
guidelines
and
address
the
water
quality
challenges
of
the
21st
century,"
(
EPA,
2002).
This
draft
National
Strategy
identifies
four
key
factors
EPA
should
evaluate
and
consider
in
the
process
of
determining
the
need
to
develop
new
or
revise
existing
ELGs
for
an
industrial
category.
Briefly,
these
four
key
factors
are:

1)
Risk
to
human
health
or
the
environment;

2)
Existence
of
applicable
and
demonstrated
technology,
process
change,
or
pollution
prevention
approach
that
would
substantially
reduce
risk
to
human
health
or
the
environment;

3)
Cost,
performance,
and
affordability
of
the
technology,
process
change
or
pollution
prevention
approach
that
would
substantially
reduce
risk
to
human
health
or
the
environment;
and,

4)
Implementation/
efficiency
considerations.
1­
3
1.2
Description
of
Work
Performed
By
ERG
To
support
EPA's
preparation
of
its
2004/
2005
biennial
plan,
ERG
conducted
a
literature
and
database
review
to
identify
broad
technological
changes
in
industry
and
pollution
prevention
approaches.
ERG
began
by
analyzing
economic
information
from
the
U.
S.
Census
Bureau
(
Economic
Census
and
Annual
Survey
of
Manufactures),
Bureau
of
Economic
Analysis,

U.
S.
Department
of
Labor
(
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics),
and
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Energy
(
Office
of
Industrial
Technology)
to
identify
industrial
categories
that
have
recently
experienced
or
are
expected
to
experience
greater
than
average
economic
growth.
ERG
then
identified
which
of
these
industrial
categories
generate
wastewater
and
thus
may
be
able
reduce
their
pollutant
discharges
by
implementing
new
technologies,
process
changes,
or
pollution
prevention
techniques.
Using
this
process,
ERG
identified
the
following
seven
industries:


Aluminum
Manufacturing
and
Forming;


Construction
Products;


Health
Services;


Industrial
Organic
Chemicals;


Oil
and
Gas
Field
Services;


Plastics;
and

Semiconductors.

This
report
presents
the
results
of
the
general
economic
analysis
as
well
as
a
profile
of
each
of
the
seven
industries
listed
above.
Each
industry
profile
includes
background
information
about
the
industry,
wastewater
sources,
current
regulations,
recent
economic
changes,
and
potentially
applicable
technological
advances.
Information
about
each
industry
was
obtained
from
a
variety
of
sources
including
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Energy's
(
DOE)
"
Industries
of
the
Future"
Program,
U.
S.
Department
of
Labor,
EPA
Office
of
Compliance
Sector
Notebooks,
industry
journals,
and
industry
association
publications
and
websites.
1­
4
1.3
Statement
of
Quality
This
report
contains
information
readily
available
from
government
sources
and
industry
and
other
publications.
It
does
not
present
environmental
measurement
data.
Thus,
no
statements
regarding
the
accuracy,
precision,
representativeness,
completeness,
or
comparability
of
the
data
presented
in
this
report
are
appropriate.

In
addition
to
reviewing
readily
available
government
data,
ERG
searched
an
electronic
database
of
periodicals
(
Infotrac
®
)
to
locate
pertinent
journal,
magazine,
and
newspaper
articles
published
in
the
last
three
to
five
years.
References
from
peer­
reviewed
(
refereed)
journals
and
articles
in
the
general
press
written
by
authors
with
identifiable
trade
association,
academic,
or
government
affiliation
were
included
in
the
literature
review.
ERG
also
conducted
key­
word
searches
using
search
engines
such
as
Google,
®
Alltheweb,
®
and
Scirus.
®
Informational
web
pages
(
with
URL
ending
in
.
gov
or
.
edu),
news
web
pages,
and
commercial
web
pages
were
included
in
the
literature
review
if
they
were
judged
to
be
of
high
informational
quality,
based
on
criteria
described
in
the
evaluation
check
list
appended
to
ERG's
Quality
Assurance
Project
Plan
for
Work
Assignment
1­
08,
Effluent
Guidelines
Plan
for
304(
m)
(
Revision
1).

1.4
References
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
2002.
Draft:
A
Strategy
for
National
Clean
Water
Industrial
Regulations.
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
guide/
strategy/
304mstrategy.
pdf
2­
1
2.0
GENERAL
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS
AND
IDENTIFICATION
OF
REVIEWED
INDUSTRIES
This
section
describes
the
procedure
ERG
used
to
identify
industries
on
which
to
focus
our
review
of
information
pertaining
to
technological
advances
and
process
changes.

2.1
General
Economic
Analysis
This
section
presents
the
economic
information
ERG
reviewed
to
identify
industrial
categories
that
have
experienced
greater
than
average
growth
in
the
last
ten
years.

U.
S.
Chamber
of
Commerce
The
United
States
Chamber
of
Commerce
document,
"
United
States
Business
Facts"
contains
a
compilation
of
employment
and
business
information
and
provides
a
general
overview
of
the
U.
S.
economy.
Figure
1
is
a
chart
of
the
breakdown
of
the
1999
U.
S.
gross
domestic
product
(
GDP)
by
industry,
adapted
from
this
document.
According
to
the
most
recent
information
complied
by
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Commerce,
Bureau
of
Economic
Analysis,
in
1999,
16
percent
of
the
U.
S.
GDP
was
contributed
by
manufacturing
industries.
Only
31
percent
of
the
U.
S.
GDP
was
contributed
by
private
industry
sectors
that
typically
generate
large
volumes
of
wastewater.
These
sectors
are
transportation
and
public
utilities,
manufacturing,
construction,

mining,
and
agriculture,
forestry,
and
fishing.
2­
2
Mining
1%

Manufacturing
16%
Private
Businesses
88%
Federal
Government
4%

State
&
Local
Government
8%
Finance,
Insurance,
&
Real
Estate
19%
Agriculture,
Forestry,
and
Fishing
1%

Construction
5%

Services
21%
Wholesale
&
Retail
Trade
16%
Transportation
&
Public
Utilities
8%

Figure
1.
Breakdown
of
1999
GDP
U.
S.
Census
Bureau's
Economic
Census
The
U.
S.
Census
Bureau's
Economic
Census
is
the
major
source
of
facts
about
the
structure
and
status
of
the
Nation's
economy
(
U.
S.
Census
Bureau,
2003).
The
Economic
Census
is
conducted
every
5
years,
in
the
years
ending
in
2
and
7.
The
data
from
the
2002
Economic
Census
are
not
yet
available;
therefore,
data
from
the
1997
Economic
Census
were
used
in
this
analysis.
The
data
from
Economic
Censuses
taken
prior
to
1997
were
classified
according
to
the
1987
Standard
Industrial
Classification
(
SIC)
system.
However,
beginning
with
the
1997
Census,

data
are
classified
and
presented
based
on
the
1997
North
American
Industry
Classification
System
(
NAICS).
Since
it
was
not
possible
to
reclassify
1992
data
based
on
the
NAICS
classification,
the
1997
records
were
assigned
both
SIC
and
NAICS
codes
to
allow
for
comparison
of
the
results
from
the
1992
and
1997
censuses.
Although
many
of
the
individual
SIC
codes
correspond
directly
to
industries
defined
under
the
NAICS
system,
most
of
the
higher
level
groupings
(
i.
e.,
sectors)
do
not
match
up
as
well.
The
adoption
of
the
NAICS
has
therefore
had
a
major
impact
on
the
comparability
of
data
between
the
1992
and
1997
censuses.
2­
3
The
percent
change
in
the
total
sales,
shipments,
receipts,
revenue,
or
dollar
value
of
business
done
between
1992
and
1997
was
calculated
for
each
three­
digit
SIC
code
in
order
to
identify
the
industries
which
experienced
the
largest
economic
growth
or
decline.
Table
1
presents
the
25
industries
with
the
largest
percent
increase
in
units
reported
by
the
census.
Table
2
presents
the
10
industries
with
the
largest
percent
decrease
in
units
reported
by
the
census.

These
units
vary
by
business
sector
and
include
total
sales,
shipments,
receipts,
revenue,
or
dollar
value
of
business
done.
2­
4
Table
1
Three­
Digit
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
in
Total
Sales,
Shipments,
Receipts,
Revenues
or
Dollar
Value
of
Business
Done
Between
1992
and
19971
SIC
SIC
Description2
40
CFR
Part
Percent
Change3
559
Automotive
dealers,
not
elsewhere
classified
N/
A
242%

628
Services
allied
with
the
exchange
of
securities
or
commodities
N/
A
233%

489
Communication
services,
not
elsewhere
classified
N/
A
199%

736
Personnel
supply
services
N/
A
139%

679
Miscellaneous
investing
N/
A
136%

842
Arboreta
and
botanical
or
zoological
gardens
(
Tax
Exempt)
N/
A
136%

527
Mobile
home
dealers
N/
A
134%

737
Computer
programming,
data
processing,
and
other
computer
related
services
N/
A
122%

552
Motor
vehicle
dealers
(
used
only)
N/
A
116%

841
Museums
and
art
galleries
(
Taxable)
N/
A
113%

842
Arboreta
and
botanical
or
zoological
gardens
(
Taxable)
N/
A
109%

808
Home
health
care
services
N/
A
106%

245
Wood
buildings
and
mobile
homes
N/
A
98%

367
Electronic
components
and
accessories
469
93%

623
Security
and
commodity
exchanges
N/
A
91%

616
Mortgage
bankers
and
brokers
N/
A
91%

832
Individual
and
family
social
services
N/
A
90%

366
Communications
equipment
4334
89%

841
Museums
and
art
galleries
(
Exempt)
N/
A
87%

829
Schools
and
educational
services,
not
elsewhere
classified
N/
A
86%

177
Concrete
work
special
trade
contractors
N/
A
84%

345
Screw
machine
products,
bolts,
etc.
4334
82%

473
Freight
shipping
services
N/
A
80%

506
Electrical
goods
N/
A
78%

504
Professional
and
commercial
equipment
and
supplies
N/
A
78%

1Does
not
include
industries
with
nondisclosed
economic
census
data.
2As
defined
by
the
1987
Standard
Industrial
Classification
Manual.
3Comparison
between
1992
and
1997
dollars.
Does
not
account
for
changes
in
prices
or
inflation.
4Facilities
in
this
SIC
code
may
be
subject
to
the
requirements
of
40
CFR
433
(
Metal
Finishing)
if
they
meet
the
applicability
requirements
set
forth
in
the
regulation.
N/
A
­
Not
Applicable.
2­
5
Table
2
Three­
Digit
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Decrease
in
Total
Sales,
Shipments,
Receipts,
Revenues
or
Dollar
Value
of
Business
Done
Between
1992
and
19971
SIC
SIC
Description2
40
CFR
Part
Percent
Change3
482
Telegraph
communications
N/
A
­
82%

423
Trucking
terminal
facilities
N/
A
­
53%

237
Fur
goods
N/
A
­
30%

376
Guided
missiles,
space
vehicles,
parts
4334
­
29%

261
Pulp
mills
430
­
25%

348
Ordnance
and
accessories,
n.
e.
c.
4334
­
21%

317
Handbags
and
personal
leather
goods
N/
A
­
18%

545
Dairy
products
stores
N/
A
­
17%

387
Watches,
clocks,
watchcases,
and
parts
4334
­
15%

562
Women's
clothing
stores
N/
A
­
13%

1Does
not
include
industries
with
nondisclosed
economic
census
data.
2As
defined
by
the
1987
Standard
Industrial
Classification
Manual.
3Comparison
between
1992
and
1997
dollars.
Does
not
account
for
changes
in
prices
or
inflation.
4Facilities
in
this
SIC
code
may
be
subject
to
the
requirements
of
40
CFR
433
(
Metal
Finishing)
if
they
meet
the
applicability
requirements
set
forth
in
the
regulation.
N/
A
­
Not
applicable.

As
shown
in
Table
1,
the
majority
of
the
industries
with
the
largest
economic
growth
between
1992
and
1997,
as
measured
by
percent
increase
in
sales,
shipments,
receipts,

revenue,
or
dollar
value
of
business
done,
were
service
industries.
Since
many
of
the
service
industries
listed
in
Table
1
do
not
use
or
generate
significant
amounts
of
wastewater,
ERG
analyzed
changes
for
manufacturing
SIC
codes
(
four­
digit).
The
25
manufacturing
SIC
codes
with
the
largest
increase
in
value
of
shipments
were
identified
in
an
effort
to
find
industries
that
are
experiencing
economic
growth
and
generate
wastewater.
Table
3
presents
the
25
manufacturing
industries
with
the
largest
percent
increase
in
value
of
shipments.
2­
6
Table
3
Four­
Digit
Manufacturing
SIC
Codes
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
in
Value
of
Shipments
Between
1992
and
19971
SIC
SIC
Description2
40
CFR
Part
Percent
Change3
2843
Surface
active
agents
N/
A
145%

3674
Semiconductors
and
related
devices
469
144%

2451
Mobile
homes
N/
A
127%

3451
Screw
machine
products
4334
117%

3549
Metalworking,
machinery,
n.
e.
c.
4334
112%

3369
Nonferrous
foundries
464
109%

3275
Gypsum
products
N/
A
109%

3577
Computer
peripheral
equipment,
n.
e.
c.
4334
107%

3365
Aluminum
foundries
464
101%

3537
Industrial
trucks
and
tractors
4334
101%

3364
Nonferrous
die­
casting
except
aluminum
N/
A
101%

3088
Plastic
plumbing
fixtures
N/
A
101%

2439
Structural
wood
members,
n.
e.
c.
N/
A
101%

3431
Metal
sanitary
ware
466
99%

3492
Fluid
power
valves
and
hose
fittings
465
98%

3661
Telephone
and
telegraph
apparatus
4334
93%

3663
Radio
and
TV
communications
4334
90%

3713
Truck
and
bus
bodies
4334
89%

3531
Construction
machinery
4334
84%

3594
Fluid
power
pumps
and
motors
4334
82%

2833
Medicinals
and
botanicals
439
81%

3398
Metal
heat
treating
N/
A
78%

2531
Public
buildings
and
related
furniture
N/
A
76%

3532
Mining
machinery
4334
75%

3571
Electronic
components
4334
74%

1Does
not
include
industries
with
nondisclosed
economic
census
data.
2As
defined
by
the
1987
Standard
Industrial
Classification
Manual.
3Comparison
between
1992
and
1997
dollars.
Does
not
account
for
changes
in
prices
or
inflation.
4Facilities
in
this
SIC
code
may
be
subject
to
the
requirements
of
40
CFR
433
(
Metal
Finishing)
if
they
meet
the
applicability
requirements
set
forth
in
the
regulation.
N/
A
­
Not
Applicable.
2­
7
"
Industries
of
the
Future"

DOE's,
Office
of
Industrial
Technology
(
OIT)
operates
a
program
called
"
Industries
of
the
Future,"
through
which
it
has
established
collaborative
research
and
development
partnerships
in
nine
key
industries.
The
"
Industries
of
the
Future"
use
large
amounts
of
heat
and
energy
to
physically
or
chemically
transform
materials.
In
addition,
they
collectively
supply
90
percent
of
the
materials
vital
to
our
economy,
produce
$
1
trillion
in
annual
shipments,

directly
employ
over
3
million
people,
and
indirectly
provide
an
additional
12
million
jobs
at
all
skill
levels.
The
nine
"
Industries
of
the
Future"
are
listed
in
Table
4.

Table
4
Department
of
Energy
Industries
of
the
Future
Industry
Research
Focus
Agriculture
use
of
bio­
based
materials
as
feedstocks
for
the
chemical
industry
Aluminum
smelting
technologies
Chemicals
separations
and
recovery
technologies
Forest
Products
sustainable
forestry,
improved
energy
and
environmental
performance,
and
advanced
gasification
technologies
Glass
energy­
efficient
melting
technologies
Metal
Casting
increased
recycling,
reduced
casting
defects,
reduced
air
pollution
Mining
energy­
efficient
mining
and
processing
of
coal,
metals,
and
industrial
minerals
Petroleum
refining
technologies
Steel
computer
modeling
for
process
optimization
U.
S.
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
U.
S.
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
(
BLS),
a
branch
of
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Labor,

provides
labor
economics
and
statistics
for
the
federal
government.
The
BLS
also
provides
2­
8
occupational
employment
projections
based
on
BLS
surveys
and
models
of
labor
force,
aggregate
economy,
final
demand,
industrial
activity,
employment
by
industry,
and
employment
occupation
(
BLS,
2003).
Table
5
lists
the
25
occupations
BLS
projects
will
see
the
largest
percent
increase
between
2000
and
2010.

Table
5
Occupations
with
the
Largest
Percent
Increase
Projected
Between
2000
and
2010
Occupation
Percent
Increase
Computer
software
engineers,
applications
100%

Computer
support
specialists
97%

Computer
software
engineers,
systems
software
90%

Network
and
computer
systems
administrators
82%

Network
systems
and
data
communications
analysts
78%

Desktop
publishers
67%

Database
administrators
66%

Personal
and
home
aides
63%

All
other
computer
specialists
61%

Computer
systems
analysts
60%

Medical
assistants
57%

Social
and
human
service
assistants
54%

Physician
assistants
54%

Medical
records
and
health
information
technicians
49%

Computer
and
information
systems
managers
48%

Home
health
aides
47%

Physical
therapist
aides
46%

Occupational
therapist
aides
45%

Physical
therapist
assistants
45%

Audiologists
45%

Fitness
trainers
and
aerobics
instructors
40%

Computer
and
information
scientists,
research
40%

Veterinary
assistants
and
laboratory
animal
caretakers
40%

Occupational
therapist
assistants
40%

Veterinary
technologists
and
technicians
39%

Source:
BLS,
2003.
2­
9
As
shown
in
Table
5,
the
seven
occupations
with
the
largest
projected
increases
are
computer­
related.
In
fact,
11
of
the
top
25
occupations
with
the
greatest
growth
are
computer­
related
occupations.
With
the
exception
of
fitness
trainers
and
aerobics
instructors,

veterinary
assistants
and
laboratory
animal
caretakers,
and
veterinary
technologists
and
technicians,
the
majority
of
the
remaining
high
growth
occupations
are
in
the
health
industry.

Table
6
presents
the
occupations
which
BLS
projects
will
see
the
largest
percent
decrease
between
2000
and
2010.
Many
of
these
occupations
are
being
replaced
by
electronics
and
computers.
For
example,
telephone
operators,
motion
picture
projectionists,
and
meter
readers
are
all
occupations
that
are
being
replaced
with
electronic
or
computerized
systems.
Two
of
the
occupations
that
are
projected
to
have
the
greatest
decreases
are
related
to
the
railroad
industry,
reflecting
a
decrease
in
that
industry.

Table
6
Occupations
with
the
Largest
Percent
Decrease
Predicted
Between
2000
and
2010
Occupation
Percent
Change
Railroad
brake,
signal,
and
switch
operators
­
61%

Shoe
machine
operators
and
tenders
­
54%

Telephone
operators
­
35%

Loan
interviewers
and
clerks
­
28%

Motion
picture
projectionists
­
27%

Rail­
track
laying
and
maintenance
equipment
operators
­
26%

Meter
readers,
utilities
­
26%

Farmers
and
ranchers
­
25%

Radio
mechanics
­
24%

All
other
communications
equipment
operators
­
22%

Source:
BLS,
2003.
2­
10
2.2
Selection
of
Industries
for
Review
Industries
for
which
ERG
surveyed
literature
to
identify
technology,
process
changes,
or
pollution
prevention
approaches
that
would
reduce
wastewater
pollutant
discharges
were
selected
by
evaluating
economic
information
and
by
evaluating
the
potential
for
an
industry
to
discharge
polluted
wastewater
or
storm
water.
The
economic
information
ERG
evaluated
is
described
in
the
preceding
paragraphs.
ERG
relied
on
information
from
the
1997
National
Sediment
Contaminant
Point
Source
Inventory
(
EPA,
1997)
to
get
a
sense
of
the
potential
for
an
industry
to
discharge
polluted
wastewater.

In
1997,
EPA's
Office
of
Science
and
Technology
(
OST)
conducted
a
screening
analysis
identifying
probable
point
source
contributors
of
sediment
pollutants.
This
analysis
was
based
on
1994
discharge
data
by
SIC
code
compiled
in
EPA's
Permit
Compliance
System
(
PCS)

and
in
the
1993
Toxic
Release
Inventory
(
TRI)
database.
PCS
includes
discharges
reported
by
direct­
discharging
facilities.
TRI
includes
both
the
direct
and
indirect
releases.
OST
developed
a
sediment
hazard
scoring
system
for
the
reported
discharges.
They
calculated
the
annual
chemical
load
from
each
facility
represented
in
PCS
and
TRI,
then
multiplied
this
load
by
the
sediment
hazard
score
to
calculate
a
hazard­
weighted
release.
The
hazard­
weighted
releases
for
each
industrial
category
were
summed
and
the
categories
were
ranked.
TRI
data
and
PCS
data
were
analyzed
separately.
The
industrial
categories,
defined
by
the
National
Sediment
Contaminant
Point
Source
Inventory,
with
high
rankings
in
both
analyses
included:
Metal
Products
and
Finishing;
Industrial
Organic
Chemicals;
and
Primary
Metals.
Plastic
Materials
and
Petroleum
Refining
were
each
ranked
high
in
one
of
the
analyses.

The
Metal
Products
and
Finishing
industry,
and
many
of
the
industries
listed
in
Tables
1
and
3
with
the
largest
economic
growth,
are
part
of
the
Metal
Products
and
Machinery
(
MP&
M)
industry.
Growing
industries
in
this
sector
include
mobile
home
manufacturing;
screw
machine
products,
bolts,
etc.;
metalworking,
machinery,
n.
e.
c.;
industrial
truck
and
tractor;
and
other
SIC
categories
involving
metal
manufacturing
operations.
Because
EPA
was
taking
final
2­
11
action
on
revised
ELGs
for
the
MP&
M
industry
during
the
preparation
of
this
draft
report,
ERG
postponed
review
of
literature
for
this
industry.

Rationale
for
selecting
industries
for
which
ERG
surveyed
literature
to
identify
technology,
process
changes,
or
pollution
prevention
approaches
that
would
reduce
wastewater
pollutant
discharges,
is
presented
for
each
industry,
below.

The
aluminum
industry
(
SIC
3334)
is
a
growing
industry.
As
shown
in
Table
3,

between
1992
and
1997,
there
was
a
101
percent
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments
from
the
production
of
aluminum
foundries
(
SIC
3365).
This
trend
implies
an
increase
in
the
production
of
aluminum,
a
process
which
produces
a
significant
amount
of
wastewater
and
results
in
the
discharge
of
sediment
contaminants
(
EPA,
1997).

Construction
products
industry
(
SIC
14
and
32)
growth
is
a
result
of
the
growing
demand
for
residential
and
nonresidential
construction.
Construction
products
include
crushed
stone,
dimension
stone,
sand,
and
gravel.
As
shown
in
Table
3,
gypsum
products
manufacturing
experienced
a
109
percent
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments.
The
1997
Economic
Census
also
indicated
that
concrete
products,
n.
e.
c.
(
SIC
3272)
also
experienced
a
significant
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments.
In
addition,
these
construction
products
are
produced
by
mining,
which
is
one
of
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future."

The
health
services
industry
(
SIC
80)
is
one
of
the
service
industries
that
have
recently
experienced
large
increases
in
receipts
and
revenue.
Unlike
other
service
industries,
the
health
services
industry
discharges
wastewaters
that
may
contain
a
variety
of
toxic
pollutants.
As
shown
in
Table
1,
home
health
care
services
experienced
a
106
percent
increase
in
receipts
between
1992
and
1997.
In
addition,
the
health
services
industry
as
a
whole
(
taxable
sector)

experienced
a
33
percent
increase
in
receipts.
Further,
as
shown
in
Table
5,
the
BLS
projects
significant
continued
growth
in
health
care
occupations.
2­
12
The
industrial
organic
chemicals
industry
(
SIC
286)
was
identified
by
the
National
Sediment
Contaminant
Point
Source
Inventory
as
one
of
the
three
major
industrial
dischargers
of
sediment
contaminants
(
EPA,
1997.)
In
addition,
the
chemical
industry
is
one
of
is
one
of
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future."
Gum
and
wood
chemicals
and
cyclic
crude
and
intermediates
manufacturing,
two
sectors
of
the
industrial
organic
chemicals
industry,
experienced
an
11
and
35
percent
increase
in
value
of
shipments,
respectively.

Oil
and
gas
field
services
(
SIC
138)
did
not
have
a
large
enough
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments
between
1992
and
1997
to
be
included
in
Table
1;
however,
it
did
experience
a
60
percent
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments.
Between
1999
and
2001,
oil
rig
drilling
increased
60
percent
(
Planchet
2003).
In
addition,
the
drilling
of
oil
and
gas
wells
experienced
a
103
percent
increase
in
the
value
of
shipments.

The
plastics
industry
(
SIC
308)
continues
to
grow
as
an
increasing
number
of
products
are
manufactured
from
plastics.
As
shown
in
Table
3,
plastic
plumbing
fixtures
manufacturing
(
SIC
3088)
had
one
of
the
largest
increases
in
value
of
shipments
between
1992
and
1997.
ERG
analyzed
the
economic
data
for
other
types
of
plastic
products
and
found
that
the
following
plastic
products
experienced
over
a
40
percent
growth
in
value
of
shipments:
rubber
and
miscellaneous
plastic
products,
rubber
and
plastics
hose
and
belting,
laminated
plastics
plate
and
sheet,
plastics
pipe,
plastics
bottles
and
plastic
products,
n.
e.
c..
In
addition,
the
Plastic
Materials
industrial
category
was
identified
as
a
discharger
of
sediment
contaminants
(
EPA,

1997).

The
semiconductor
industry
(
SIC
3672)
was
chosen
to
be
profiled
because,
as
shown
in
Table
3,
it
had
a
144
percent
increase
in
the
value
shipments
between
1992
and
1997,

the
second
highest
percent
increase
in
the
manufacturing
sector.
In
addition,
large
volumes
of
water
are
used
in
the
production
of
semiconductors.
2­
13
2.3
References
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1997.
National
Sediment
Contaminant
Point
Source
Inventory:
Analysis
of
Facility
Release
Data
(
EPA).
EPA
­
823­
D­
96­
001.

Planchet
Research,
Ltd.
2003.
Energy,
Oil,
Gas
and
Utilities
Industry
Trends
and
Market
Research.
Available
online:
http://
www.
plunkettresearch.
com/
energy/
energy_
overview.
htm.

U.
S.
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
(
BLS).
2003.
U.
S.
Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
website.
Available
online
at:
http://
www.
bls.
gov/.

U.
S.
Chamber
of
Commerce.
2002.
United
States
Business
Facts.
United
States
Chamber
of
Commerce
Statistics
and
Business
Division.
3­
1
3.0
ADDITIONAL
REVIEW
AND
INFORMATION
COLLECTION
ERG
has
identified
additional
literature
review
and
information
collection
activities
that
can
increase
knowledge
of
broad
technological
changes,
process
changes,
and
pollution
prevention
advances
that
may
impact
the
generation
and
discharge
of
water
pollutants.
These
activities
are
presented
in
this
section.

3.1
Industry­
Focused
Reviews
To
increase
knowledge
of
broad
technological
changes,
process
changes,
and
pollution
prevention
advances
available
for
specific
industries,
ERG
anticipates
the
following
additional
activities:


Continued
review
of
industry
journals
and
industry­
focused
literature;


Interviews
with
industry
experts,
to
identify
technologies
that
are
beginning
to
be
commercialized
and
to
estimate
the
potential
impact
of
these
technologies
on
wastewater
discharges;


Analysis
of
pollutant
discharge
information
for
each
industry,
tabulated
in
EPA's
PCS
and
TRI
databases,
to
identify
the
significant
pollutants
released
from
each
industry,
in
terms
of
mass
and
potential
risk
to
human
health
and
the
environment.
After
the
significant
pollutants
are
identified,
additional
review
can
focus
on
changes
and
pollution
prevention
advances
that
may
reduce
the
generation
and
discharge
of
these
pollutants.


Complete
a
profile
of
the
MP&
M
industries,
focusing
on
those
industries
that
are
experiencing
above
average
growth.
Consult
with
EPA
and
contractor
staff
knowlegable
of
the
industry
to
identify
changes
and
pollution
prevention
advances
that
may
reduce
the
generation
and
discharge
of
pollutants
of
concern.
3­
2
3.2
Across­
Industry
Reviews
ERG
anticipates
reviewing
existing
literature
describing
technology
advances
that
may
be
used
in
multiple
industries
and
that
cut
across
current
industry
boundaries.
These
technology
advances
include:


Waterless
seal
pump
technology;


Painting
technologies;
and

Development
of
alternative
transportation
fuels
­


Hydrogen
fuel
cells;


Biodiesel;


Hybrid
battery/
gasoline
powered
automobiles;
and

Gasohol.
4­
1
Machinery
and
Equipment
6%
Consumer
Durables
7%

Electrical
7%

Construction
13%
Other
Domestic
3%

Packaging
24%
Exports
14%
Transportation
26%
4.0
ALUMINUM
INDUSTRY
4.1
Overview
of
Industry
Aluminum
is
light
weight,
high
strength,
resistant
to
corrosion,
and
recyclable.

These
qualities
make
it
an
essential
material
for
modern
economies.
Aluminum
use
continues
to
increase;
over
the
last
thirty
years,
the
demand
for
aluminum
has
increased
fourfold
in
Western
countries
(
DOE
OIT,
1997).

The
main
uses
of
aluminum
in
the
U.
S.
today
include
the
automotive,
packaging,

and
construction
industries
(
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.,
2001).
These
three
markets
account
for
two
thirds
of
U.
S.
aluminum
consumption.
The
distribution
of
aluminum
net
shipments
in
1995
is
presented
in
Figure
2.

Figure
2.
Distribution
of
Aluminum
Net
Shipment
by
Market
­
1995
4­
2
The
primary
aluminum
manufacturing
industry
falls
under
SIC
code
3334
and
NAICS
331312.
Alumina
is
extracted
from
bauxite
using
the
Bayer
process.
The
Hall­
Heroult
process
is
then
used
to
produce
aluminum
by
the
electrolysis
of
alumina
through
a
carbon
anode.

Primary
aluminum
manufacturing
is
very
energy
intensive.
Reusing
aluminum
by
remelting
and
casting
requires
only
5
to
8
percent
of
the
energy
required
to
produce
aluminum
from
ore.
Because
of
the
energy
savings
and
the
high
quality
and
value
of
the
recovered
metal,

aluminum
recycling
has
almost
doubled
in
the
last
ten
years.
In
2000,
recycled
aluminum
accounted
for
a
third
of
the
U.
S.
aluminum
supply
(
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
2002).

Aluminum
recycling
is
also
called
secondary
aluminum
manufacturing.
This
industry
falls
under
SIC
3341
and
NAICS
331314.
In
the
secondary
aluminum
industry,

aluminum
is
recovered
from
both
industrial
and
consumer
aluminum
scrap.
Industrial
scrap
is
metal
that
has
been
cast
off
from
pre­
consumer
activities,
such
as
aluminum
fabrication,

manufacturing,
or
smelting.
Consumer
scrap
is
aluminum
that
has
been
used
by
consumers
and
discarded
or
recycled.
The
scrap
is
pretreated,
smelted,
and
refined.

Wastewater
Sources
In
primary
aluminum
production,
wastewaters
are
produced
during
clarification
and
precipitation
of
aluminum
slurry.
Alumina
is
refined
through
the
Bayer
process
in
which
crushed
bauxite
ore
is
mixed
with
an
aqueous
sodium
hydroxide
solution
to
form
a
slurry.
The
slurry
is
heated
and
many
of
the
impurities
present
in
the
ore,
such
as
silicon,
iron,
titanium,
and
calcium
oxide,
collect
and
form
a
sludge.
The
remaining
slurry
is
cooled
and
clarified.
During
clarification,
water
and
starch
are
added
to
the
mixture
to
remove
remaining
impurities,
such
as
sand.
The
solution
is
cooled
in
a
precipitation
tank
with
sodium
hydroxide,
which
catalyzes
the
precipitation
of
aluminum
hydroxide
and
sodium
hydroxide.
The
alumina
refining
process
wastewater
contains
sand,
starch,
and
caustic.
4­
3
Wastewaters
are
also
produced
during
the
production
of
anodes
for
use
in
primary
aluminum
manufacturing.
Anodes
are
used
to
reduce
aluminum
hydroxide
in
primary
aluminum
production
during
the
Hall­
Heroult
process.
The
anodes
are
consumed
in
the
process
and
are
replaced
frequently.
Therefore,
most
aluminum
reduction
plants
include
anode
production
facilities.
The
production
of
anodes
produces
wastewater
containing
suspended
solids,
fluorides,

and
polynuclear
aromatic
hydrocarbons
(
DOE
OIT,
1997
and
World
Bank
Group,
1998).

Secondary
aluminum
processing
also
produces
wastewater.
Aluminum
dross
is
a
byproduct
of
aluminum
melting
operations.
The
dross
is
melted
to
recover
aluminum
from
the
dross.
Water
and
chloride
or
fluoride
are
added
to
the
melted
dross
to
aid
in
the
separation
of
the
metal
from
the
mixture.
The
resulting
process
wastewater
is
contaminated
with
salt.

Current
Regulations
The
aluminum
industry
is
currently
regulated
under
40
CFR
421:
Nonferrous
Metals
Manufacturing
Point
Source
Category.
This
ELG
applies
to
primary
and
secondary
aluminum
manufacturing
and
includes
practices
of
alloying
or
casting
of
hot
nonferrous
metals.

40
CFR
421
was
developed
in
1984
and
most
recently
revised
in
1990.

The
Aluminum
Forming
Point
Source
Category
(
40
CFR
467)
is
applicable
to
wastewater
from
these
operations:


Rolling
with
neat
oils;


Rolling
with
emulsions;


Extrusion;


Forging;


Drawing
with
neat
oils;
and

Drawing
with
emulsions.

40
CFR
467
was
developed
in
1985
and
revised
in
1986.
4­
4
4.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
describes
the
current
market
situation
for
aluminum
and
recent
technological
advances
that
are
occurring
in
the
aluminum
industry.

Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Changes
The
fastest
growing
market
for
aluminum
is
the
transportation
sector.
The
general
trend
in
the
automotive
industry
is
a
shift
towards
lightweight
vehicles.
Concerns
about
global
warming
have
increased
efforts
to
reduce
vehicle
weight.
Lightweight
vehicles
consume
less
gasoline
and
produce
less
air
pollutant
emissions.
Aluminum
can
provide
weight
savings
and
still
maintain
durability;
it
has
a
higher
strength­
to­
weight
ratio
than
steel
(
Aluminum
Association,

2001).
Since
1990,
the
use
of
aluminum
in
cars
has
doubled
while
its
use
in
the
light
truck
market
has
tripled
(
Automotive
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.,
2001).
Aluminum
is
now
the
third
most
used
material
in
automobiles,
after
steel
and
plastic
(
The
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.,
2002).
The
automotive
industry's
demand
for
aluminum
is
expected
to
grow
at
a
rate
of
5
percent
per
year
(
Roling,
2001).

In
addition
to
the
automotive
market,
aerospace
and
defense
markets
are
expected
to
have
increased
demand
for
aluminum.
The
high
strength­
to­
weight
ratio
will
make
aluminum
an
attractive
component
in
future
weapon
technologies,
light­
weight
defense
transport,
and
new
defense
aircraft.
The
aerospace
sector
will
utilize
advanced
aluminum
alloys
in
satellite
launch
vehicles
and
international
space
stations
(
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.,
2001).

Technological
Advances
The
Aluminum
Association
has
teamed
with
the
DOE's
OIT
in
the
"
Industries
of
the
Future"
program.
This
partnership
has
helped
to
identify
and
develop
technologies
to
support
the
advancement
of
the
aluminum
industry.
The
DOE
OIT
provides
funding
and
research
and
development
support
for
projects
as
described
below.
4­
5
Primary
Aluminum
Manufacturing
One
of
the
DOE
OIT's
projects
proposes
an
alternative
to
the
traditional
anodes
used
in
the
Hall­
Heroult
process.
Research
is
being
conducted
on
the
use
of
ceramic
anodes.

Currently,
carbon
block
anodes
are
used
to
reduce
aluminum
oxide.
Oxygen
is
produced,
and
reacts
with
the
carbon
and
consumes
the
anode.
Ceramic
anodes
are
inert
and
would
not
be
consumed.
Current
carbon
block
anodes
are
replaced
every
several
weeks,
ceramic
anodes
would
need
to
be
replaced
only
once
a
year
or
less.
This
change
would
reduce
the
production
of
anodes,

and
reduce
the
wastewater
produced
by
anode
manufacturing.
Ceramic
anodes
also
offer
cost
savings
over
carbon
anodes.
The
DOE
OIT
is
currently
testing
the
applicability
of
ceramic
anodes.

Another
DOE
OIT
project
proposes
an
"
aluminum
production
cell"
to
replace
the
Hall­
Heroult
process
in
primary
aluminum
manufacturing.
The
new
process
uses
a
nonconsumable
metal
alloy
anode,
a
wetted
cathode,
and
an
electrolytic
bath,
which
is
kept
saturated
with
alumina.
This
technology
does
not
use
anodes,
and
will
therefore
reduce
all
of
the
wastewater
associated
with
anode
production
and
will
eliminate
spent
cathode
pot
liners,
which
are
a
hazardous
waste.

Secondary
Aluminum
Manufacturing
The
DOE
OIT
is
working
to
develop
new
aluminum
scrap
sorting
technologies
that
will
increase
aluminum
recycling.
These
new
processes
will
increase
the
speed
and
accuracy
of
aluminum
alloy
sorting.
Laser
Induced
Breakdown
Spectroscopy
(
LIBS)
is
used
for
chemical
analysis
of
scrap
metal,
allowing
the
scrap
to
be
sorted
by
alloy.
Developments
to
improve
recycling
will
lead
to
increased
secondary
aluminum
manufacturing,
which
will
increase
the
volume
of
wastewater
associated
with
this
process.
4­
6
New
technologies
will
expand
opportunities
for
aluminum
packaging.
Aluminum
beverage
cans
are
being
developed
that
can
be
resealed,
chill
themselves,
and
indicate
the
temperature
of
their
contents
via
color
(
Aluminum
Association
Inc,
2001).
Aluminum
cylinders
that
can
be
used
to
store
gas
under
pressure
are
also
being
developed.
New
vehicle
systems
may
require
high­
pressure
gas
which
will
increase
the
demand
for
strong,
light
weight
cylinders.
The
increased
use
of
aluminum
in
packaging
will
increase
aluminum
manufacturing
and
the
associated
wastewater
production.

4.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
The
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
is
the
trade
association
for
primary
and
secondary
aluminum
manufacturers,
semi­
fabricated
aluminum
producers,
and
industry
suppliers.
The
website
for
the
Aluminum
Association
is
located
at
www.
aluminum.
org.
The
Environmental
contact
listed
on
the
website
is:

Robert
Striete,
Vice
President
Environment,
Health
and
Safety
Department
bstrieter@
aluminum.
org
900
19th
Street
NW
Washington,
DC
20006
202­
862­
5100
International
Aluminum
Institute
is
a
worldwide
trade
organization
dedicated
to
the
advancement
of
the
aluminum
industry.
The
International
Aluminum
Institute's
website
is
located
at
www.
world­
aluminum.
org.

Industry
Journals
and
Other
Publications
As
previously
mentioned,
the
aluminum
industry
was
selected
as
one
of
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future".
Information
on
the
program,
multiple
background
documents,
and
4­
7
research
information
can
be
found
on
the
DOE's
aluminum
website
(
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
aluminum).

Thomas
P.
Robinson
Aluminum
Program
Manager
Phone:
(
202)
586­
0139
E­
Mail:
thomas.
robinson@
ee.
doe.
gov
Aluminum
International
Today
is
a
journal
published
for
the
aluminum
production
and
processing
industries.
Each
issue
contains
news,
contracts
summary,
event
schedules,

technical
features,
and
product
reviews.
In
addition
to
a
printed
journal,
there
is
a
website
to
provide
additional
information
and
support.
The
website
address
is
http://
www.
aluminumtoday.
com.

The
American
Metal
Market
journal
addresses
issues
facing
all
metal
markets
in
the
United
States,
including
aluminum.
It
provides
insight
into
economic
indicators,
outlooks
for
future
markets,
and
metal
prices.
The
data
and
journal
articles
can
be
accessed
online
at
www.
amm.
com.

4.4
References
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
2002.
Industry
Overview.
On
the
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
website:
http://
www.
aluminum.
org/.

Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
2001.
Aluminum
Industry
Vision:
Sustainable
Solutions
for
a
Dynamic
World.
Available
online:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
aluminum/
pdfs/
alumvision.
pdf.

Automotive
Aluminum
Association,
Inc.
2001.
Automotive
Applications
of
Aluminum.
On
the
Automotive
Aluminum
Association
website:
http://
www.
autoaluminum.
org/.

Department
of
Energy,
Office
of
Industrial
Technologies
(
DOE
OIT).
2003.
Industries
of
the
Future:
Aluminum
website:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
aluminum/.

DOE
OIT.
1997.
Energy
and
Environmental
Profile
of
the
U.
S.
Aluminum
Industry.
Available
online
at:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
aluminum/
pdfs/
alprofile.
pdf.
4­
8
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1995.
Profile
of
the
Nonferrous
Metals
Industry.
EPA/
310­
R­
95­
010.

Roling,
D.
2001.
"
Future
for
aluminum
seen
as
quite
bright".
American
Metal
Market.
Vol.
109,
Issue
11,
pp
4A.

World
Bank
Group.
1998.
"
Aluminum
Manufacturing."
Pollution
Prevention
and
Abatement
Handbook.
July.
Available
online
at:
http://
wbln0018.
worldbank.
org/
essd/
essd.
nsf/
GlobalView/
PPAH/$
File/
47_
alum.
pdf.
5­
1
5.0
CONSTRUCTION
PRODUCTS
INDUSTRY
5.1
Overview
of
Industry
The
construction
industry
relies
heavily
on
inputs
such
as
stone,
clay,
sand,
gravel,

concrete,
gypsum,
and
cement.
According
to
the
Mineral
Information
Institute,
every
American
born
will
need
21,476
pounds
of
clays,
68,110
pounds
of
cement,
and
1.64
million
pounds
of
stone,
sand,
and
gravel
(
2002).
These
materials
are
used
in
residential,
commercial,
and
industrial
buildings
as
well
as
in
most
roads,
bridges,
sewer
systems
and
tunnels
(
EPA,
1995a).
The
production
of
construction
products
can
be
divided
into
two
steps:
1)
the
mining
and
quarrying
of
the
minerals
(
Non­
metal,
non­
fuel
mining,
SIC
14),
and
2)
the
physical
modification
of
the
mined
minerals
to
produce
a
manufactured
product
(
Stone,
clay,
and
glass
products,
SIC
32).

Facilities
that
mine
or
quarry
materials
used
to
make
construction
products
are
located
throughout
the
United
States
(
EPA,
1995a).
Facilities
that
manufacture
construction
products
from
mined
materials
are
also
widely
dispersed.
According
to
the
1987
U.
S.
Census,
at
least
one
construction
products
manufacturing
facility
was
located
in
every
state.
(
EPA,
1995b)

Wastewater
Sources
During
the
mining
or
quarrying
of
non­
fuel,
nonmetallic
minerals
such
as
stone,

clay,
sand,
and
gravel,
wastewater
is
generated
from
the
use
of
water
to
suppress
dust,
wash
away
waste
from
the
working
zone,
and
cool
excavation
machinery
such
as
drills
(
EPA,
1995a).
Storm
water
runoff
from
mines
and
quarries
can
also
carry
pollutants.
Some
establishments
that
extract
minerals
also
perform
primary
preparation
of
the
materials,
such
as
crushing,
grinding,
or
washing.
The
types
of
wastewater
generated
during
preparation
processes
include
transport
water,
ore
and
product
wash
water,
dust
suppression
water,
classification
water,
heavy
media
separation
water,
flotation
water
(
used
to
separate
impurities),
solution
water,
air
emissions
control
equipment
water,
and
equipment
and
floor
wash
down
water.
Wastewater
and
storm
water
at
mining
and
processing
facilities
can
contain
suspended
solids
and
have
a
high
pH.
In
5­
2
addition,
wastewater
from
processing
facilities
can
contain
chemicals
such
as
sulfuric
acid,

chromium,
phenols,
zinc,
ammonia,
hydrochloric
acid,
and
phosphoric
acid,
which
are
commonly
used
to
remove
mineral
impurities
(
EPA,
1995).

The
manufacturing
of
stone,
clay,
glass,
and
concrete
construction
products
from
mined
minerals
also
generates
wastewater.
The
processes
used
to
manufacture
these
products
often
use
water
as
a
cooling
agent
or
as
an
ingredient
in
making
the
final
product
(
EPA,
1995b).

The
wastewater
generated
by
these
manufacturing
processes
generally
contains
dissolved
solids
such
as
potassium
and
sodium
hydroxide,
and
suspended
solids
such
as
calcium
carbonate.

According
to
2000
TRI
data,
nitrate
compounds,
zinc
compounds,
barium,
and
ammonia
were
the
four
toxic
pollutants
with
the
largest
reported
releases
to
surface
water
from
facilities
manufacturing
stone,
clay,
glass,
and
concrete
products
(
SIC
32)
(
EPA,
2003).
In
addition,

wastewater
from
these
processes
often
contains
waste
heat
and
can
be
highly
alkaline.
(
EPA,

1995b)

Current
Regulations
Wastewater
discharges
from
mine
sites
are
addressed
by
the
CWA
under
the
NPDES
permit
program
(
for
process
water
and
storm
water
point
source
discharges)
and
the
non­
point
source
program.
The
NPDES
permit
program
requires
mine
sites
to
obtain
permits
to
discharge
storm
water
that
has
come
into
contact
with
any
overburden,
raw
material,
intermediate
products,
finished
products,
byproducts,
or
waste
products
located
on
the
site
of
the
operation.

Mineral
mining
and
processing
operations
are
also
subject
to
the
requirements
set
forth
in
40
CFR
436.
In
addition,
Section
304(
f)(
B)
establishes
guidelines
for
identifying
and
evaluating
the
nature
and
source
of
non­
point
sources
of
pollutants,
and
processes,
procedures,
and
methods
to
control
pollution
resulting
form
mining
activities,
including
runoff
and
siltation
from
new,
currently
operating,
and
abandoned
surface
mines.
However,
specific
best
management
practice
requirements
for
non­
point
source
control
at
mine
sites
have
not
been
promulgated
at
the
national
level,
nor
has
any
national
guidance
been
issued
(
EPA,
1995a).
5­
3
The
manufacturers
of
stone,
clay,
glass,
and
concrete
construction
products
are
also
subject
to
the
generally
applicable
requirements
of
the
CWA
as
well
as
the
following
EPA
ELGs:


EPA
Effluent
Guidelines
and
Standards
for
Cement
Manufacturing
(
40
CFR
411);


EPA
Effluent
Guidelines
and
Standards
for
Glass
Manufacturing,

Insulation
Fiberglass
Subcategory
(
40
CFR
426);
and

EPA
Effluent
Guidelines
for
Asbestos
Manufacturing
(
40
CFR
427).

5.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
describes
recent
economic
trends
and
potentially
applicable
technological
advances
for
the
construction
products
industry.

Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Changes
The
demand
for
crushed
stone,
dimension
stone,
sand,
gravel,
and
other
construction
products
is
heavily
influenced
by
the
amount
of
construction
activity
in
the
public
and
private
sectors.
The
construction
industry
is
the
largest
domestic
consumer
of
brick,
clay,

cement,
sand,
and
gravel
(
EPA,
1995a).
Consequently,
the
continuing
increase
in
construction
activity
has
generally
resulted
in
increased
demand
for
non­
fuel,
nonmetallic
minerals
and
stone,

clay,
glass,
and
concrete
products.
From
approximately
1990
to
2000,
the
nonmetallic
mineral
industry
experienced
a
slight
employment
growth,
which
can
be
largely
attributed
to
construction
(
BLS,
2003a).
According
to
the
BLS,
the
demand
for
crushed
stone
and
gravel
should
remain
strong
over
the
next
few
years
because
Congress
recently
increased
spending
for
building
and
5­
4
maintenance
of
roads
and
highways
(
BLS,
2003a).
In
addition,
the
demand
for
both
residential
and
nonresidential
construction
is
expected
to
continue
to
grow
(
BLS,
2003b).

Technological
Advances
The
mining
industry
was
selected
as
one
of
the
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future"

and
emphasis
has
been
placed
on
the
development
of
technologies
for
mining
and
processing
minerals
and
materials
(
DOE
OIT,
2003).
As
part
of
this
program,
the
following
goals
for
the
mining
industry
have
been
identified:
1)
low
cost
and
efficient
production,
2)
superior
exploration
and
resource
characterization,
3)
safe
and
efficient
extraction
and
processing,
4)
responsible
emissions
and
by­
product
management,
5)
advanced
products,
6)
positive
partnership
with
government,
and
7)
improved
communication
and
education
(
National
Mining
Association,
1998).

To
achieve
these
goals
the
mining
industry
has
developed
a
research
plan,
known
as
the
"
Crosscutting
Technology
Roadmap"
which
encompasses
metallic
minerals,
nonmetallic
minerals,
and
coal
mining.
Research
and
development
work
in
some
areas
specified
by
"
Crosscutting
Technology
Roadmap"
could
result
in
the
development
of
new
technologies
that
would
impact
wastewater
production
and
composition.
For
example,
the
roadmap
has
identified
the
development
of
a
method
for
high
pressure
water
extraction
as
a
research
priority
and
estimates
that
a
commercially
available
method
will
become
available
in
the
next
three
years.
The
commercial
use
of
high
pressure
water
extraction
would
potentially
increase
the
amount
of
wastewater
generated
by
the
industry
and
necessitate
the
development
of
new
wastewater
handling
procedures.
The
"
Industries
of
the
Future"
program
has
also
recently
funded
research
and
development
projects
aimed
at
the
development
of
improved
separation
and
dewatering
technologies,
improved
dust
emission
control
technologies,
and
improved
by­
product
recovery.

Improvements
in
the
efficiency
of
separation
and
by­
product
recovery
technologies
could
reduce
wastewater
generation
while
improvements
in
dust
emission
control
could
potentially
increase
wastewater
generation.
The
use
of
advanced
technologies
such
as
satellite
communication,
5­
5
computer
modeling,
and
smart
sensors
are
already
widespread
in
the
industry
and
have
resulted
in
more
efficient
mining
and
processing
which
reduces
the
amount
of
waste
generated.

There
have
also
been
efforts
made
to
develop
safe,
efficient,
and
economically
and
environmentally
beneficial
separation
processes.
For
example,
the
Idaho
National
Engineering
and
Environmental
Laboratory
has
been
"
experimenting
with
environmentally
friendly
catalysts
that
can
replace
current
noxious
chemicals"
and
has
also
been
working
on
"
developing
new
processing
methods
that
minimize
waste
generation."
(
INEEL,
2002)

Pollution
prevention
techniques
available
to
stone,
clay,
and
glass
product
manufacturing
facilities
can
be
classified
into
three
categories:
1)
source
reduction,
2)
recycling
and
reuse,
and
3)
improved
operating
practices
(
EPA,
1995b).
Many
new
"
ready­
mix"
concrete
plants
have
greatly
reduced
water
use
in
recent
years
due
to
wastewater
disposal
issues
and
drought
conditions
in
some
parts
of
the
country.
An
increasing
number
of
companies
are
choosing
to
use
completely
closed­
loop
systems
(
BuildingGreen,
1993).

5.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
National
Mining
Association
101
Constitution
Avenue,
NW
Suite
500
East,
Washington,
DC
20001­
2133
(
P)
(
202)
463­
2600
(
F)
(
202)
463­
2666
e­
mail:
thowe@
nma.
org
www.
nma.
org
5­
6
National,
Stone,
Sand
&
Gravel
Association
2101
Wilson
Blvd.
Suite
100
Arlington,
VA
22201
(
P)
(
703)
525­
8788
(
F)
(&
03)
525­
7782
e­
mail:
info@
nssga.
org
www.
aggregates.
org
Industry
Journals
Concrete
Products
www.
concreteproducts.
com
Engineering
&
Mining
Journal
www.
e­
mj.
com
Mineral
Resources
Engineering
www.
worldscinet.
com/
mre/
mre.
shtml
Rock
Products
www.
rockproducts.
com
5.4
References
BuildingGreen.
1993.
"
Cement
and
Concrete:
Environmental
Considerations."
Environmental
Building
News.
Vol.
2,
No.
2.

Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
(
BLS).
2003a.
"
Mining
and
Quarrying."
Career
Guide
to
Industries,
2002­
03
Edition.
http://
ww.
bls.
gov/
oco/
cg/
cgs004.
htm
(
visited
February
07,
2003).

BLS.
2003b.
"
Construction."
Career
Guide
to
Industries,
2002­
03
Edition.
http://
ww.
bls.
gov/
oco/
cg/
cgs004.
htm
(
visited
February
07,
2003).

Department
of
Energy,
Office
of
Industrial
Technologies
(
DOE
OIT).
2003.
Industries
of
the
Future:
Mining
Website.
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
mining/.

Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1995a.
Profile
of
the
Non­
Metal,
Non­
Fuel
Mining
Industry.
EPA/
310­
R­
95­
011.

EPA.
1995b.
Profile
of
the
Stone,
Clay,
Glass,
and
Concrete
Products
Industry.
EPA/
210­
R­
95­
017.
5­
7
EPA.
2003.
TRI
Explorer.
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
triexplorer/
chemical.
htm.

Idaho
National
Engineering
and
Environmental
Laboratory
(
INEEL).
2002.
Mining
and
Mineral
Processing.
http://
www.
inel.
gov/
energy/
mining/.

Mineral
Information
Institute.
2002.
Golden,
Colorado.
http://
www.
mii.
org/
index.
html.

National
Mining
Association.
1998.
The
Future
Begins
with
Mining.
Available
online
at:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
mining/
pdfs/
vision.
pdf.

National
Mining
Association
Technology
Committee.
1998.
Mining
Industry
Roadmap
for
Crosscutting
Technologies.
Available
online
at:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
mining/
pdfs/
ccroadmap.
pdf.
6­
1
6.0
HEALTH
SERVICES
INDUSTRY
6.1
Overview
of
Industry
The
health
services
industry
is
one
of
the
largest
industries
in
the
county,

consisting
of
more
than
469,000
establishments
and
supplying
more
than
11
million
jobs
(
BLS,

2003).
The
industry
includes
establishments
primarily
engaged
in
providing
medical,
surgical,
and
other
health
services
which
are
classified
under
NAICS
62
(
SIC
80).
The
health
services
industry
consists
of
the
following
eight
segments:


hospitals;


nursing
and
personal
care
facilities;


offices
and
clinics
of
physicians;


home
healthcare
services;


offices
and
clinics
of
dentists;


offices
and
clinics
of
other
practitioners
(
i.
e.,
chiropractors,
optometrists,
podiatrists,
occupational
and
physical
therapists,
psychologists,
and
dietitians);


health
and
allied
services,
not
elsewhere
classified
(
i.
e.,
kidney
dialysis
centers,
drug
treatment
clinics,
blood
banks,
and
providers
of
childbirth
preparation
classes);
and,


medical
and
dental
laboratories
(
BLS,
2003).

Wastewater
Sources
Wastewater
from
hospitals
and
other
health
care
facilities
can
contain
pathogenic
microorganisms,
radioactive
elements,
and
other
toxic
chemical
substances
such
as
mercury.

Many
large
hospitals
and
nursing
homes
operate
their
own
wastewater
treatment
plants
which
remove
many
of
these
pollutants.
However,
it
is
not
known
if
current
wastewater
treatment
6­
2
practices
adequately
remove
pharmaceuticals
and
antiseptics.
EPA
is
currently
funding
a
project
to
investigate
the
occurrence
and
fate
of
pharmaceuticals
and
antiseptics
in
drinking
water,

sewage
treatment
facilities,
and
coastal
waters
(
EPA,
2001).

The
disposal
of
mercury,
a
persistent
bioaccumulative
toxin,
is
a
problem
for
many
health
care
facilities.
Ten
to
twenty
percent
of
mercury
released
to
the
environment
nationwide
comes
from
the
health
care
industry
(
Kentucky
Pollution
Prevention
Center,
2002).
Hospitals
are
known
to
contribute
4
to
5
percent
of
the
total
wastewater
mercury
load;
consequently,
many
local
wastewater
treatment
plants
impose
strict
wastewater
limits
for
mercury
on
hospitals
(
Kentucky
Pollution
Prevention
Center,
2002).

Mercury
is
found
in
many
products
used
by
the
health
services
industry
including
dental
amalgams,
pharmaceutical
supplies,
thermometers,
sphygmomanometers,
and
gastrointestinal
tubes.
Each
sphygmomanometer
contains
between
70
to
90
grams
of
mercury
and
gastrointestinal
tubes
such
as
bougie
tubes
can
contain
up
to
454
grams
of
mercury
(
Kentucky
Pollution
Prevention
Center,
2002).
However,
the
mercury
contained
in
medical
equipment
such
as
sphygmomanometers
and
gastrointestinal
tubes
is
generally
only
released
when
the
equipment
is
broken
or
disposed.
A
dental
amalgam
is
a
mixture
of
mercury,
and
an
alloy
of
silver,
tin,
and
copper.
Mercury
generally
makes
up
about
45
to
50%
of
the
amalgam
compound
(
Academy
of
General
Dentistry,
2003).
Mercury
particles
are
released
into
the
wastewater
stream
during
placement
and
removal
of
amalgams.
Dental
offices
are
the
largest
source
of
mercury
in
wastewater
influent
to
POTWs
followed
by
domestic
sources
and
hospitals
(
AMSA,
2002).

Current
Regulations
Wastewater
discharges
from
hospitals
are
currently
subject
to
the
regulations
set
forth
in
40
CFR
460
for
the
Hospital
Point
Source
Category.
In
1976,
EPA
established
best
practicable
control
technology
(
BPT)
limitations
for
carbonaceous
5­
day
biochemical
oxygen
demand
(
BOD
5),
total
suspended
solids
(
TSS),
and
pH
in
wastewater
discharged
from
hospitals.

EPA
has
not
established
pretreatment
standards
for
the
hospital
point
source
category.
6­
3
EPA
supports
the
efforts
of
state
and
local
governments
to
achieve
mercury
discharge
reductions
through
outreach
and
technical
assistance
for
mercury
pretreatment
programs
at
sewage
treatment
plants
(
EPA,
2002).
In
addition,
states
can
impose
specific
mercury
discharge
limits
and/
or
monitoring
requirements
on
facilities
that
discharge
into
waterquality
limited
water
bodies
(
EPA,
1994).

6.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
describes
recent
trends
in
the
structure
and
organization
of
the
health
services
industry
as
well
as
technological
advances
in
the
health
services
that
may
affect
wastewater
generation
or
characterization.

Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Changes
Health
services
is
a
growing
industry.
According
to
the
BLS,
13
percent
of
the
wage
and
salary
jobs
created
between
2000
and
2010
will
be
in
health
services
(
BLS,
2003).

Employment
in
the
health
services
is
expected
to
grow
for
several
reasons.
The
elderly
population,
which
has
greater
than
average
health
needs,
will
grow
faster
between
2000
and
2010
than
the
total
population,
increasing
the
demand
for
health
services
such
as
home
healthcare
and
nursing
and
personal
care.
Advances
in
medical
technology
will
continue
to
improve
the
survival
rate
of
severely
ill
and
injured
patients,
who
will
then
need
extensive
therapy
and
care.
(
BLS,

2003)

There
will
also
be
a
shift
from
inpatient
to
less
expensive
outpatient
care,
made
possible
by
new
surgical
techniques
and
less
invasive
procedures
(
BLS,
2003).
This
shift
is
reflected
in
the
decrease
in
length
of
hospital
stays
over
the
last
20
years.
According
to
the
National
Hospital
Discharge
Survey,
conducted
by
CDC's
National
Center
for
Health
Statistics
and
released
in
2001,
the
average
length
of
stay
for
hospital
inpatients
was
5.0
days
in
1999,

down
from
7.3
days
in
1980.
The
rate
of
hospitalization
decreased
33
percent
from
1980
to
1990,
but
stayed
fairly
constant
throughout
the
1990s
(
Medical
College
of
Wisconsin,
2002).
6­
4
Between
1990
and
1999,
the
discharge
rate
among
the
15­
to­
44­
year
olds
decreased
17
percent
and
the
rate
among
those
45
to
65
years
was
down
14
percent,
but
these
decreases
were
more
than
offset
by
an
11
percent
increase
for
those
65
years
and
older
(
Medical
College
of
Wisconsin,

2002).
This
trend
of
increasing
dependance
on
outpatient
care
means
that
pollutants
previously
found
primarily
in
wastewater
from
hospitals
and
other
medical
facilities
are
now
showing
up
more
frequently
in
wastewater
from
other
sources
such
as
households.

The
demand
for
dental
care
will
also
increase
due
to
population
growth.
In
addition,
the
greater
retention
of
natural
teeth
by
middle­
aged
and
older
persons
and
greater
awareness
of
the
importance
of
dental
care
will
also
result
in
an
increased
demand
for
dental
services.
(
BLS,
2003)

Technological
Advances
Hospitals
and
other
health
care
facilities
are
using
an
increasing
number
of
disposable
products
such
as
thermometers,
syringes,
and
exam
gowns.
Disposable
products
do
not
have
to
be
washed
and
therefore
reduce
water
use
at
health
care
facilities.

The
increased
use
of
pharmaceuticals
may
affect
the
composition
of
wastewater
from
health
service
facilities.
Drugs
such
as
antibiotics,
anti­
depressants,
birth
control
pills,

seizure
medication,
cancer
treatment,
pain
killers,
tranquilizers,
and
cholesterol­
lowering
compounds
have
been
detected
in
varied
water
sources
(
The
Arizona
Water
Resources
Research
Center,
2000).
These
drugs
can
pass
through
conventional
sewage
treatment
facilities
intact,
and
end
up
in
waterways,
lakes,
and
even
aquifers
(
The
Arizona
Water
Resource
Research
Center,

2000).

Many
hospitals
have
already
taken
steps
to
reduce
or
eliminate
mercury
use.

There
are
many
mercury­
free
products
(
e.
g.,
thermometers,
sphygmomanometers,
etc)
which
can
be
used
in
place
of
the
conventional
mercury­
containing
products.
The
dental
industry
has
also
been
receiving
pressure
to
reduce
their
use
of
mercury
and
develop
effective
techniques
for
6­
5
removing
mercury
from
their
liquid
wastewater
streams.
The
larger
particles
of
amalgam
captured
by
the
chairside
dental
vacuum
system
during
the
placement
or
removal
of
amalgam
fillings
get
caught
in
the
chairside
trap.
This
trap
is
periodically
cleaned
out
and
any
pieces
of
amalgam
are
recycled.
However,
most
of
the
amalgam
material
vacuumed
up
is
in
smaller
particles
or
slurry,
which
passes
through
the
chairside
trap
and
enters
the
wastewater
line
which
eventually
leads
to
the
municipal
sewage
system.
There
are
several
different
commercially
available
amalgam
separators
which
can
remove
more
than
99
percent
of
amalgam
from
dental
wastewater
streams;
however,
in
most
states,
dentists
are
not
required
to
use
amalgam
separators.

The
use
of
composite
resin
fillings
is
continuing
to
increase.
A
nationwide
survey
by
the
ADA
Health
Policy
Resources
Center
showed
that
in
1990,
approximately
48
million
composite
resin
fillings
were
placed
in
the
United
States
as
compared
to
102
million
amalgam
restorations
(
Berthold,
2002).
By
1990,
just
nine
year
later,
composite
resins
had
become
the
most
commonly
used
filling
material
with
86
million
placed
in
the
United
States
that
year
compared
to
71
million
amalgam
restorations
(
Berthold,
2002).
While
the
number
of
new
amalgam
restorations
being
placed
is
declining,
there
are
still
billions
of
amalgam
restorations
currently
in
place
which
will
eventually
need
to
be
removed.
Consequently,
the
process
of
removing
amalgam
restorations
will
result
in
the
continued
discharge
of
mercury
from
dental
offices
for
many
years
to
come.
6­
6
6.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
American
Dental
Association
211
East
Chicago
Ave.
Chicago,
IL
60611
P:
(
312)
440­
2500
F:
(
312)
440­
7494
www.
ada.
org
Academy
of
General
Dentistry
211
East
Chicago
Ave.
Chicago,
IL
60611
P:
(
312)
440­
4300
www.
agd.
org
American
Health
Care
Association
1201
L.
Street,
NW
Washington,
DC
20005
P:
(
202)
842­
4444
F:
(
202)
842­
3860
www.
ahca.
org
American
Hospital
Association
One
North
Franklin
Chicago,
IL
60606­
3421
P:
(
312)
422­
3000
www.
aha.
org
Industry
Journals
Health
Facilities
Management
www.
hfmmagazine.
com
Journal
of
the
American
Dental
Association
www.
ada.
org/
prof/
pubs/
jada/
index.
asp
6­
7
6.4
References
Academy
of
General
Dentisty.
2003.
Dental
Amalgam.
http://
www.
agd.
org/
consumer/
topics/
amalgams/
main.
html.

Association
of
Metropolitan
Sewerage
Agencies
(
AMSA).
2002.
Mercury
Source
Control
&
Pollution
Prevention
Program
Evaluation.
Available
online
at:
http://
www.
amsa­
cleanwater.
org/
advocacy/
mercgrant/
finalreport.
pdf.

The
Arizona
Water
Resource
Research
Center.
2000.
"
Pharmaceuticals
in
Our
Water
Supplies."
Arizona
Water
Resource.
Vol.
9,
No.
1.
http://
ag.
arizona.
edu/
AZWATER/
ALT/
awr/
july00/
feature1.
htm.

Bureau
of
Labor
Statistics
(
BLS).
2003a.
"
Health
Services."
Career
Guide
to
Industries,
2002­
03
Edition.
http://
ww.
bls.
gov/
oco/
cg/
cgs004.
htm
(
visited
February
10,
2003).

Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1994.
Background
Information
on
Mercury
Sources
and
Regulations.
Great
Lakes
National
Program
Office.
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
glnpo/
bnsdocs/
mercsrce/
index.
html.

EPA.
2001.
Pharmaceuticals
and
Antiseptics:
Occurrence
and
Fate
in
Drinking
Water,
Sewage
Treatment
Facilities,
and
Coastal
Water.
National
Center
for
Environmental
Research.
EPA
Grant
Number:
R829004.

EPA.
2002.
General
Information.
Mercury
Website.
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
mercury/
information.
htm.

Kentucky
Pollution
Prevention
Center.
2002.
Healthcare
Guide
to
Pollution
Prevention
Implementation
through
Environmental
Management
Systems.
Available
online
at:
www.
kppc.
org/
Publications/
Print%
20Materials/
Healthcare%
20Guide/
index.
cfm.

Medical
College
of
Wisconsin.
2002.
"
Length
of
Hospital
Stays
Continues
to
Decline."
HealthLink.
http://
healthlink.
mcw.
edu/
article/
1013703780.
html.
7­
1
7.0
INDUSTRIAL
ORGANIC
CHEMICALS
INDUSTRY
7.1
Overview
of
Industry
The
organic
chemicals
industry
(
SIC
236)
converts
wood
and
petroleum
products
into
intermediate
or
basic
finished
chemicals.
The
industry
is
divided
into
three
categories:
gum
and
wood
chemicals,
cyclic
organic
crudes
and
intermediates,
and
industrial
organic
chemicals
not
elsewhere
classified.

Gum
and
wood
chemicals
(
SIC
2861)
are
materials
that
are
distilled
or
otherwise
separated
from
wood.
Charcoal,
tall
oil,
rosin,
turpentine,
pine
tar,
acetic
acid,
and
methanol
are
some
of
the
most
common
products
from
the
gum
and
wood
chemicals
sector.
Since
many
of
the
products
produced
by
this
industry
are
wood­
based,
most
facilities
are
found
in
the
southeast,

near
wood
and
pulp
production
facilities.

Cyclic
crudes
and
intermediates
(
SIC
2965)
are
materials
processed
from
petroleum,
natural
gas,
and
coal.
Benzene,
toluene,
xylene,
and
naphthalene
are
a
few
of
the
important
products
produced
by
the
cyclic
crudes
and
intermediates
sector.
Facilities
in
this
sector
are
primarily
located
near
the
Gulf
of
Mexico
(
where
many
petroleum­
based
feedstocks
are
produced)
and
near
downstream
industrial
users
in
the
Northeast
and
Midwest.

Industrial
organic
chemicals,
not
elsewhere
classified
(
SIC
2869)
is
the
largest
most
diverse
sector
if
the
industry.
Facilities
in
this
sector
are
primarily
located
near
the
Gulf
of
Mexico
and
in
the
Northeast
and
Midwest.

Chemical
reactions
such
as
halogenation,
pyrolysis,
oxidation,
and
hydrolysis
are
commonly
used
to
produce
organic
chemicals.
Since
most
of
these
reactions
do
not
result
in
a
pure
product,
a
separation
process
must
be
performed
after
the
chemical
reaction
in
order
to
obtain
the
desired
product.
Common
separation
methods
include
filtration,
distillation,
and
extraction.
(
EPA,
2002)
7­
2
Wastewater
Sources
The
organic
chemicals
industry
discharges
pollutants
to
water
through
both
direct
discharge
and
runoff.
Sources
of
liquid
wastes
include
equipment
wash
solvent/
water,
lab
samples,
surplus
chemicals,
product
washes/
purifications,
seal
flushes,
scrubber
blowdown,

cooling
water,
steam
jets,
vacuum
pumps,
leaks,
spills,
spent/
used
solvents,
and
waste
oils/
lubricants.
(
EPA,
2002)

As
a
result
of
the
variety
in
the
processes
used
and
products
produced,
a
wide
range
of
pollutants
is
found
in
the
wastewaters
of
the
organic
chemical
industry,
including
a
variety
of
conventional
pollutants,
toxic
priority
pollutants,
and
nonconventional
pollutants.

Many
of
the
toxic
and
nonconventional
pollutants
found
in
the
wastewaters
of
this
industry
are
organic
compounds
produced
by
the
industry
for
sale,
while
others
are
by­
products
of
the
production
processes.
Since
there
is
generally
more
than
one
reaction
pathway
available
to
the
reactants
of
chemical
reactions,
undesirable
by­
products
are
often
produced
resulting
in
a
mixture
of
unreacted
raw
materials,
products,
and
by­
products.
The
processes
used
to
separate
the
desired
product
from
this
mixture
generate
additional
residues
with
little
or
no
commercial
value
and
that
end
up
in
process
wastewater,
in
air
emissions,
and
as
chemical
wastes.
The
combination
of
raw
materials
and
production
processes
used
at
a
facility
determine
the
characteristics
of
the
wastewater
generated.
(
EPA,
1987)

According
to
1999
TRI
data,
nitrate
compounds,
ammonia,
sodium
nitrate,
and
methanol
were
the
four
toxic
pollutants
with
the
largest
reported
releases
to
surface
water
from
the
581
reporting
organic
chemical
facilities
(
SIC
286)
(
EPA,
2002).

Current
Regulations
Facilities
that
manufacture
cyclic
crudes
and
intermediates
and
industrial
organic
chemicals
not
elsewhere
classified
are
subject
to
the
requirements
of
40
CFR
414,
established
in
1987
and
revised
in
1993.
This
ELG
separates
the
organic
chemicals,
plastics,
and
synthetic
fiber
7­
3
industry
into
eight
product
groups,
and
sets
separate
conventional
pollutant
(
BOD
5,
TSS,
pH)

limitations
for
each
group.
In
addition,
the
regulation
establishes
separate
toxic
pollutant
limitations
for
direct
discharge
point
sources
that
use
end­
of­
pipe
biological
treatment,
direct
discharge
point
sources
that
do
not
use
end­
of­
pipe
biological
treatment,
and
indirect
discharge
point
sources.

Facilities
that
manufacture
gum
and
wood
chemicals
are
subject
to
the
requirements
of
the
40
CFR
454,
established
in
1976
and
reviewed
in
1976
and
1995.
This
ELG
sets
separate
BPT
conventional
pollutant
limitations
for
six
subcategories
in
the
gum
and
wood
chemicals
industry.
There
are
no
guidelines
for
priority
pollutant
or
nonconventional
pollutants.

7.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
describes
recent
changes
in
the
industrial
organic
chemicals
market
and
discusses
technological
advances
that
could
affect
the
quantity
and
quality
of
wastewater
generated
by
manufacturers
of
industrial
organic
chemicals.

Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Changes
The
industrial
organic
chemical
industry
faces
significant
competition
due
to
increased
organic
chemical
production
capacity
in
Asia,
the
Middle
East,
and
Latin
America.

Between
1998
and
2001,
the
industry
experienced
difficulties
including
worldwide
overcapacity,

higher
raw
material
and
fuel
costs
due
to
high
oil
prices,
and
reduced
shipments
to
Asia
because
of
its
slowed
economy.
Consequently,
there
has
been
a
considerable
amount
of
consolidation
in
the
industry.
In
addition,
many
chemical
companies
are
trying
to
reposition
themselves.
Some
companies
have
started
to
focus
more
on
speciality
chemicals,
while
other
companies
have
decided
to
produce
basic
chemicals
almost
exclusively.
Some
former
chemical
companies
have
exited
the
organic
chemicals
industry
and
are
now
specializing
in
life
sciences.
(
EPA,
2002)
7­
4
In
the
longer
term,
the
anticipated
sustained
growth
in
downstream
industries
such
as
agricultural
chemicals
and
pharmaceuticals
is
expected
to
provide
growth
opportunities
for
the
organic
chemicals
industry
(
EPA,
2002).

In
addition,
as
petroleum
and
natural
gas
becomes
more
expensive
and
scarce,

wood
may
be
increasingly
utilized
as
a
renewable
source
of
raw
materials
for
the
chemical
industry
(
Goldstein,
1978).
For
example,
a
new
genetically
engineered
bacterium
is
being
used
to
produce
succinic
acid
from
wood
wastes
and
plant
crop
residues
(
DOE
OIT,
1999).
Succinic
acid
is
a
feedstock
for
many
industrial
chemicals
used
in
the
manufacture
of
plastics,
paint,
and
other
products.
Although
succinic
acid
is
not
currently
a
commodity
chemical,
this
new
biological
production
process
would
allow
the
production
of
succinic
acid
at
a
low
enough
cost
for
it
to
be
competitive
with
chemicals
produced
from
petroleum­
based
feedstocks.
(
DOE
OIT,
1999)

Technological
Advances
Due
to
the
variety
in
the
chemical
reactions
and
processes
used
to
produce
organic
chemicals,
many
chemical
process
advancements
and
developments
apply
only
to
the
production
of
a
particular
chemical.
For
example,
in
January
2002,
scientists
at
the
National
Institute
of
Advanced
Industrial
Science
&
Technology
reported
that
they
had
developed
a
one­
step
catalytic
process
to
convert
benzene
to
phenol
(
Borman,
2002).
This
new
technique
is
higher
yielding
than
current
industrial
routes
to
phenol
(
Borman,
2002).

However,
advances
in
separation
techniques
can
be
applied
to
a
much
broader
segment
of
the
industry.
Although
many
of
the
separation
techniques
used
in
the
chemical
industry
are
already
highly
developed,
these
separation
techniques
could
be
improved
in
terms
of
energy
efficiency,
raw
materials
use,
or
cost
effectiveness
(
National
Academy
Press,
1998).

Increased
efficiency
of
separation
processes
could
result
in
decreased
water
use
and
wastewater
production
by
the
organic
chemicals
industry.
Additional
decreases
in
wastewater
generation
at
organic
chemical
manufacturing
facilities
can
be
achieved
through
improvements
in
equipment
7­
5
such
as
vacuum
pumps,
seal
pumps,
and
stream
jets
and
implementation
of
waste
reduction
practices.

The
chemical
industry
was
selected
as
one
of
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future."

Through
the
Industries
of
the
Future
program,
DOE's
OIT
and
the
U.
S.
chemical
industry
have
defined
goals
for
the
future,
developed
a
portfolio
of
research
and
development
projects,
and
accelerated
progress
towards
major
technology
breakthroughs
in
areas
such
as
chemical
synthesis,

bioprocesses
and
biotechnology,
and
materials
technology.

7.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
American
Chemical
Society
1155
16th
Street,
NW
Washington,
DC
20036
P:
(
202)
872­
4600
F:
(
202)
782­
4615
www.
chemistry.
org
American
Chemistry
Council
1300
Wilson
Boulevard
Arlington,
VA
P:
(
703)
741­
5000
F:
(
703)
741­
6000
www.
americanchemistry.
com
Synthetic
Organic
Chemicals
Manufacturers
Association
1850
M
Street,
NW
Suite
700
Washington,
DC
20036­
5810
T:
(
202)
721­
4100
F:
(
202)
296­
8120
www.
socma.
com
7­
6
Journals
Chemical
&
Engineering
News
http://
pubs.
acs.
org/
cen
7.4
References
Borman,
Stu.
2002.
"
Chemistry
Highlights
2002:
Organic
Chemistry."
Chemical
and
Engineering
News.
Vol.
80,
No.
50.
Pp.
35­
37.

Goldstein,
Irving
S.
1978.
"
Chemicals
from
Wood."
Presented
at
the
Eight
World
Forestry
Congress,
Djakarta,
October
1978.

Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1987.
Development
Document
for
Effluent
Limitations
Guideline
New
Source.

EPA.
2002.
DRAFT
Profile
of
the
Organic
Chemical
Industry.
January.
EPA/
210­
R­
XX­
XXX.

Department
of
Energy
(
DOE).
1999.
"
Production
of
Succinic
Acid
from
Wood
Wastes
and
Plants."
Chemicals
Project
Fact
Sheet.
Office
of
Industrial
Technologies.
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
chemicals/
factsheets/
succinic.
pdf
National
Academy
Press.
1998.
Separation
Technologies
for
the
Industries
of
the
Future.
Washington,
DC.
Publication
NMAB0­
487­
3.
8­
1
8.0
OIL
AND
GAS
FIELD
SERVICES
INDUSTRY
8.1
Overview
of
Industry
Natural
gas
and
oil
provide
about
62
percent
of
the
energy
consumed
in
the
United
States
and
more
than
99
percent
of
the
transportation
fuels
(
American
Petroleum
Institute,
2000).

Since
2000,
high
prices
have
been
driving
investment
in
oil
and
gas
field
services,
including
exploration
and
development.
Oil
rig
drilling
increased
60
percent
between
1999
and
2001
(
Planchet,
2003).
This
section
will
focus
on
oil
and
gas
field
services
(
SIC
138);
other
aspects
of
the
industry,
such
as
refining
and
transport,
will
not
be
discussed.

There
are
three
main
steps
in
oil
and
gas
exploration.
The
first
step
is
to
conduct
a
survey
to
identify
hydrocarbon
reserves.
Geological
maps
are
reviewed
to
identify
sedimentary
basins.
Aerial
photographs
may
also
be
used
to
identify
landscape
formations
common
to
locations
containing
oil
reserves.
A
field
geological
assessment
and
a
physical
survey
are
then
conducted.
The
most
common
type
of
survey
is
seismic.
Seismic
surveys
use
the
reflective
properties
of
soundwaves
to
map
underground
rock
formations.
Acoustic
energy
is
transmitted
into
the
ground,
and
the
reflected
sound
is
recorded
in
seismographs
on
the
surface.
The
data
are
transmitted
and
analyzed
in
a
mobile
laboratory.
(
E&
P
Forum,
1997)

The
next
step
is
exploratory
drilling,
which
verifies
the
presence
or
absence
of
hydrocarbon
reserves
and
determines
the
quantity
of
the
reserves.
A
concrete
pad
is
constructed
at
the
site
of
the
drilling
to
accommodate
drilling
equipment.
Drilling
rigs
and
other
equipment
are
moved
to
the
site
and
a
self­
contained
support
camp
is
then
assembled
for
the
workforce.

When
drilling
begins,
drilling
fluid
or
mud
is
continuously
circulated
down
a
drill
pipe
and
back
to
the
surface
equipment
to
balance
underground
pressure,
cool
the
drill
bit,
and
flush
out
rock
cuttings.
If
hydrocarbons
are
discovered,
tests
are
performed
to
determine
the
flow
rates
and
pressure
of
the
reserves.
Multiple
wells
are
drilled
to
determine
the
extent
of
the
reserves.
(
E&
P
Forum,
1997)
8­
2
After
exploration
is
over
and
oil
fields
have
been
defined,
development
begins.

The
development
drilling
technique
is
similar
to
the
exploratory
drilling
method.
However,
the
extent
of
the
operation
increases.
More
wells
are
drilled,
and
the
support
camp
is
expanded
to
include
oil
tanks,
oil
and
gas
production
facilities,
and
sometimes
water
treatment
facilities.
When
the
hydrocarbons
are
extracted
from
the
wells,
they
are
routed
to
the
production
facility
where
they
are
separated
into
oil,
gas,
and
water
components.
(
E&
P
Forum,
1997)

Wastewater
Sources
Produced
water
is
the
largest
wastewater
source
associated
with
development
operations
and
is
separated
from
the
oil
and
gas
during
development.
Produced
water
may
contain
inorganic
salts,
heavy
metals,
solids,
production
chemicals,
hydrocarbons,
benzene,
PAHs,

and
on
occasion,
naturally
occurring
radioactive
material.

Drilling
fluids
or
muds
are
also
a
significant
source
of
wastewater.
Drilling
fluids
may
be
water­
or
oil­
based.
Water­
based
drilling
fluids
may
contain
clay
and
bentonite,
and
small
amounts
of
heavy
metals
(
Ba,
Cd,
Zn,
Pb)
which
are
bound
in
minerals.
Oil­
based
drilling
fluid
wastes
are
more
harmful,
containing
toxic
oil
and
oily
cuttings.
Some
drilling
fluids
have
high
pH
and
salt
content,
which
are
potential
threats
to
fresh­
water
sources.

Wastewater
may
also
be
discharged
accidentally
through
leaks
and
spills.
These
accidents
may
result
in
damage
to
ground
and
surface
waters.

Current
Regulations
Oil
and
gas
field
service
effluents
are
currently
regulated
under
the
CWA
and
the
Safe
Drinking
Water
Act
(
SDWA).
Additionally,
oil
and
gas
field
service
discharges
are
subject
to
the
ELGs
for
the
Oil
and
Gas
Extraction
Point
Source
Category
(
40
CFR
435).
This
regulation
was
promulgated
in
1979
and
reviewed
most
recently
in
2001.
8­
3
8.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
lists
market
changes
and
technological
advances
that
are
occurring
in
the
oil
and
gas
field
services
industry.

Quantitative
and
Qualitative
Changes
As
previously
mentioned,
oil
and
gas
field
services
have
increased
dramatically
since
2000.
Rising
oil
and
gas
prices
are
creating
more
demand
for
the
products,
which
causes
more
exploration
and
development.
Technology
advances
in
the
industry
have
increased
the
efficiency
of
exploration
and
development.

Technological
Advances
Exploration
Exploration
has
long
relied
on
3­
dimensional
(
3­
D)
seismic
techniques
to
determine
where
oil
wells
are
located.
Advances
in
3­
D
seismic
surveys
have
enabled
producers
to
evaluate
prospects
more
accurately.
Because
3­
D
seismic
technology
improves
the
accuracy
of
the
drilling,
less
drilling
waste
is
generated,
less
water
is
extracted
relative
to
the
oil
and
gas,
and
there
are
fewer
impacts
of
exploration
because
fewer
wells
are
drilled
to
extract
the
reserves.
In
1996,
80
percent
of
off
shore
surveys
and
75
percent
of
onshore
surveys
used
3­
D
seismic
technology.
Recently,
4­
D
seismic
surveys
are
being
developed
which
allow
3­
D
surveys
to
be
observed
over
time.
4­
D
surveys
provide
information
about
the
flow
of
the
hydrocarbon
reserves
and
further
increase
the
efficiency
of
oil
and
gas
extraction.
4­
D
surveys
are
not
yet
widely
used;

only
about
60
4­
D
surveys
had
been
performed
by
1999
(
DOE
OFE,
1999).

Seismic
surveys
are
disrupted
by
the
presence
of
salt
because
large
amounts
of
sound
energy
are
lost
when
passed
through
salt.
Oil
and
gas
contained
in
salt
can
be
modeled
by
a
combination
of
advanced
seismic
technology,
complex
mathematical
modeling,
and
improved
data
8­
4
processing
and
imaging.
This
new
technology,
called
subsalt
imaging,
allows
for
better
reservoir
characterization
and,
therefore,
more
efficient
recovery
of
hydrocarbons.
Subsalt
imaging
is
currently
limited
in
use;
testing
and
development
continue
to
improve
this
technology.

Development
Advanced
drilling
techniques
have
reduced
the
impacts
of
drilling
on
water
quality.

These
techniques
include
measurement­
while­
drilling
systems,
horizontal,
multilateral,
and
slimhole
drilling.
Measurement­
while­
drilling
systems
measure
downhole
parameters
to
allow
for
more
accurate
drilling,
which
reduces
drilling
waste.
Modern
drill
bits
improve
drilling
performance
while
decreasing
waste.
Horizontal
drilling
permits
drilling
in
areas
inaccessible
by
vertical
drilling.
Multilateral
drilling
utilizes
horizontal
and
vertical
drilling
to
create
a
network
of
interconnected
wellbores
surrounding
a
single
major
wellbore,
which
allows
for
more
effective
hydrocarbon
extraction.
Slimhole
drilling
is
a
drilling
technique
that
requires
less
drilling
fluid
and
produces
less
cuttings
and
wastewater;
slimhole
rigs
occupy
far
less
space
than
conventional
rigs,

the
footprint
can
be
75
percent
smaller.
(
DOE
OFE,
1999)

Alternative
drilling
methods
are
being
researched
which
decrease
the
amount
of
drilling
fluids
or
muds
used.
Pneumatic
drilling
substitutes
air
for
drilling
fluid;
however,
this
technology
is
only
suitable
for
certain
formation
types
and
can
create
potentially
explosive
situations.
Synthetic
drilling
muds
are
also
being
investigated.
They
are
more
effective
than
water­
based
muds,
and
lack
the
toxicity
of
oil­
based
muds.

Research
is
also
being
conducted
on
advanced
water
treatment
technologies.

Freeze­
thaw
evaporation
purifies
produced
water
from
oil
and
gas
development
operations
by
separating
out
dissolved
solids,
metals,
and
chemicals.
In
this
process,
produced
water
is
placed
in
a
holding
pond.
When
temperatures
are
below
freezing,
the
water
is
sprayed
on
a
freezing
pad
where
the
brine
and
dissolved
solids
separate
from
the
ice
due
to
varying
densities.
The
brine
is
disposed
of.
As
the
ice
melts,
purified
water
drains
from
the
freezing
pad.
During
warm
8­
5
temperatures,
evaporation
from
the
pond
is
substituted
for
freezing
cycles.
The
produced
water
volume
requiring
disposal
was
reduced
by
80
percent
in
preliminary
tests.
(
DOE
OFE,
1999)

The
volume
of
water
brought
to
the
surface
during
oil
and
gas
exploration
and
development
may
also
be
reduced.
Downhole
oil/
water
separation
uses
mechanical
or
natural
methods
to
separate
the
oil
and
water.
The
oil
is
brought
to
the
surface
and
the
water
is
pumped
into
a
subsurface
injection
zone.
This
technology
can
reduce
produced
water
volumes
by
95
percent
and
increase
oil
production
by
50
percent
(
DOE
OFE,
1999).

Advanced
offshore
platform
technology
allows
for
the
recovery
of
deep
water
resources.
An
estimated
90
percent
of
reserves
are
under
3,000
feet
or
more
of
water.
New
technology
reduces
construction
and
production
times
and
operational
footprints.
Offshore
drilling
technology
has
enabled
deepwater
oil
and
gas
reserves
to
be
accessed
with
decreased
environmental
impacts.
Also,
voluntary
Safety
and
Environmental
Management
Programs
(
SEMPs)
are
in
place
for
almost
all
off
shore
wells.
The
goals
of
SEMPs
are
to
reduce
human
error
and
increase
worker
safety
and
environmental
protection
by
identifying
and
correcting
potential
hazards.

8.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
The
American
Petroleum
Institute
(
API)
is
a
trade
association
representing
the
U.
S.
petroleum
industry
in
all
aspects
of
exploration
and
development,
transportation,
refining,

and
marketing.
API
can
be
contacted
at:

1220
L
Street,
NW
Washington,
DC
20005­
4070
Phone
202­
682­
8000
www.
api.
org
8­
6
The
Oil
Industry
International
Exploration
and
Production
Forum
(
E&
P
Forum)
is
the
association
of
oil
companies
and
petroleum
industry
organizations
that
represents
its
members'

interests
in
the
United
Nations,
and
other
international
organizations
concerned
with
regulating
the
exploration
and
production
of
oil
and
gas.
The
contact
information
is:

25­
18
Old
Burlington
Street
London
W1x
1LB,
UK
Phone
+
44
(
0)
171
437
6291
www.
eandpforum.
co.
uk
Industry
Journals
and
Other
Publications
The
petroleum
industry
was
selected
as
one
of
DOE's
"
Industries
of
the
Future."

DOE
provides
support
for
research
and
development
of
the
technologies
used
in
the
industry.

Information
on
the
program,
multiple
background
documents,
and
research
information
can
be
found
on
DOE's
petroleum
website
(
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
petroleum).
The
contact
person
for
the
DOE
OIT's
petroleum
program
is:

Dickson
Ozokwelu
Phone
202­
586­
8501
Dickson.
ozokwelu@
ee.
doe.
gove
The
Oil
and
Gas
Journal
is
a
weekly
publication
that
provides
news
and
technology
information
about
the
oil
and
gas
industry.
The
print
journal
is
supplemented
by
a
website:

www.
ogj.
com.

World
Oil
is
a
publication
that
delivers
information
about
the
oil
and
gas
industry.

Additionally,
a
website
is
available
at:
www.
WorldOil.
com.
The
website
contains
industry
statistics,
research,
reference
materials,
and
market
forecasts.
8­
7
8.4
References
American
Petroleum
Institute.
2000.
Technology
Vision
2020:
A
report
on
technology
and
the
future
of
the
U.
S.
petroleum
industry.
American
Petroleum
Institute.
Washington,
D.
C.

Department
of
Energy,
Office
of
Fossil
Energy
(
DOE
OFE).
1999.
Environmental
Benefits
of
Advanced
Oil
and
Gas
Exploration
and
Production
Technology.
Available
online:
http://
www.
fe.
doe.
gov/
oil_
gas/
environ_
rpt.

Department
of
Energy,
Office
of
Industrial
Technologies
(
DOE
OIT).
2000.
Technology
Roadmap
for
the
U.
S.
Petroleum
Industry:
Draft.
Available
online:
http://
www.
oit.
doe.
gov/
petroleum/
pdfs/
petroleumroadmap.
pdf.

E&
P
Forum/
UNEP.
1997.
Environmental
management
in
oil
and
gas
exploration
and
production.
Words
and
Publications,
Oxford,
United
Kingdom.
E&
P
Forum
report
2.72/
254.
Available
online:
http://
www.
ogp.
org.
uk/
pubs/
254.
pdf.

Planchet
Research,
Ltd.
2003.
Energy,
Oil,
Gas
and
Utilities
Industry
Trends
and
Market
Research.
Available
online:
http://
www.
plunkettresearch.
com/
energy/
energy_
overview.
htm.
9­
1
Electrical
and
Electronic
3%
Consumer
and
Institutional
14%
Furnishings
4%
Exports
12%
Transportation
4%

Other
14%
Adhesives,
Inks
and
Coatings
2%
Building
and
Construction
17%
Industrial/
Machinery
1%
Packaging
29%
9.0
PLASTICS
PRODUCTS
MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRY
9.1
Overview
of
Industry
Plastics
Products
Manufacturing
falls
under
SIC
308
and
NAICS
3261.
U.
S.

demand
for
plastic
and
rubber
continues
to
grow
(
First
Research,
2001).
There
is
a
general
trend
in
the
industry
towards
consolidation
(
First
Research,
2001).

Plastic
sales
by
market
are
presented
in
Figure
3
(
American
Plastics
Institute,

2001).
The
major
markets
for
plastic
include
packaging
(
29%),
building
and
construction
(
17%),

and
consumer
and
institutional
(
14%).

Figure
3.
2001
Plastics
Sales
by
Market
9­
2
The
plastics
industry
covers
a
variety
of
plastic
types.
The
main
groups
of
plastics
are
thermoplastic
resins,
thermoset
resins,
and
foam.
Thermoplastic
resins
repeatedly
become
soft
when
melted
and
hard
when
cooled.
Thermoplastic
resins
generally
begin
in
a
pellet
form
and
are
melted
and
processed.
The
six
main
types
of
thermoplastic
resins
are:


Low­
density
polyethylene;


High­
density
polyethylene;


Polyvinyl
chloride;


Polypropylene;


Polystrene;
and

Linear
low­
density
polyethylene.
(
ERG,
1998)

Thermoset
resins
cannot
easily
be
remelted
or
reprocessed;
they
undergo
a
chemical
reaction
during
processing.
The
most
common
types
of
thermoset
resins
are:


Epoxy;


Phenolic;


Unsaturated
polyester;
and

Urea.
(
ERG,
1998)

Plastic
foam
is
manufactured
from
thermoplastic
and
thermoset
resins.
Foam
has
a
unique
cellular
structure
that
differs
from
solid
plastics.
Some
common
foams
include

Polystrene
foam;


Polyurethane
foam;
and

Polyetheylene
foam.
(
ERG,
1998)

The
different
groups
of
plastics
are
subjected
to
varying
manufacturing
processes.

The
most
common
types
of
manufacturing
processes
are
extrusion,
molding,
and
foam
processing
(
Midwest
Research
Institute,
1993).
Extrusion
forms
plastics
into
shapes
including
pipes,
tubes,

rods,
and
continuous
sheet
films.
Molding
consists
of
inserting
the
plastic
into
a
mold
by
injection
molding,
blow
molding,
or
compression
molding.
Foam
processing
includes
a
step
which
incorporates
air
or
chemical
blowing
agents
into
the
plastic
mixture
to
produce
the
unique
foam
cellular
structure.
Other
types
of
plastics
manufacturing
processes
include
lamination,
coating,

and
finishing.
9­
3
Wastewater
Sources
Wastewater
from
plastics
manufacturing
plants
comes
from
three
main
sources:


Contact
cooling
and
heating
water;


cleaning
water;
and

finishing
water.

Contact
cooling
and
heating
water
is
water
that
has
come
in
contact
with
raw
materials
or
plastic
products
during
molding
and
forming.
Most
contact
heating
and
cooling
water
has
very
low
pollutant
concentrations.
However,
some
facilities
utilize
bis(
2­

ethylhexyl)
phthalate
to
make
polyvinyl
chloride
and
vinyl
chloride
flexible.
These
facilities
discharge
contact
heating
and
cooling
water
which
contains
bis(
2­
ethylhexl)
phthalate.
Cleaning
water
is
used
to
clean
plastic
surfaces
or
equipment.
The
main
pollutants
in
cleaning
water
are
5­

day
biological
oxygen
demand
(
BOD
5),
oil
and
grease,
total
suspended
solids
(
TSS),
chemical
oxygen
demand
(
COD),
total
organic
carbon
(
TOC),
phenol,
and
zinc.
Finishing
water
is
water
used
to
rinse
plastic
material
or
lubricate
the
plastic
product
during
the
finishing
phase.
Finishing
water
may
contain
TSS
and
phalates.
(
EPA,
1995)

Another
source
of
wastewater
pollution
is
plastic
pellet
release.
Pellets
are
often
lost
to
the
floor
and
rinsed
away
during
cleaning.
The
pellets
may
be
released
into
wastewater,

where
they
may
be
ingested
by
wildlife.
(
EPA,
1995)

Current
Regulations
Plastic
Manufacturing
is
regulated
under
40
CFR
463:
Plastic
Molding
and
Forming
Point
Source
Category.
This
ELG,
which
was
promulgated
in
1984
and
updated
in
1985,
contains
effluent
limitations
for
BOD
5,
TSS,
oil
and
grease,
and
pH.
Effluent
limits
for
bis(
2­
ethylhexyl)
phthalates
were
reserved.
9­
4
9.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
describes
the
current
economic
situation
for
the
plastics
industry
and
the
technological
advances
affecting
the
plastics
industry.

Quantitative
and
Qualitative
Changes
Plastics
demand
in
the
automotive
industry
is
increasing
(
First
Research,
2001).

Plastic's
advantages
include
weight
savings,
design
flexibility,
corrosion
resistance,
and
cost
effectiveness
(
Woodward,
1999).
Lightweight
vehicles
consume
less
gasoline
and
thus
produce
fewer
air
pollution
emissions
per
mile.
Concerns
about
global
warming
have
increased
the
demand
for
lightweight
vehicles.
As
the
demand
for
lightweight
vehicles
continues,
the
auto
industry
will
seek
lightweight
and
cost
efficient
materials
such
as
plastic.

Plastics
demand
in
the
construction
sector
is
also
strong.
U.
S.
trade
data
show
that
"
Doors
and
Door
Frames,
plastic"
have
the
highest
annual
growth
rate
(
65.1%)
of
all
U.
S.

plastics
exports
(
Society
of
the
Plastics
Industry,
2001).
Also
having
a
growth
rate
of
50%
or
more
were
handles
and
knobs
for
furniture
(
Society
of
the
Plastics
Industry
2001).
Demand
for
plastic
pipe
is
expected
to
increase
5
percent
from
2000
to
2003
(
Intertec
Publishing
Corportation,
2000).

Plastics
dominate
the
packaging
sector.
Plastic
packaging
demand
is
expected
to
increase
at
an
annual
rate
of
3.3
percent
until
2006
(
Paperloop,
2002).
Plastics
are
anticipated
to
continue
to
capture
part
of
the
packaging
market
from
paper
and
aluminum.
The
top
plastics
exports
in
2000
were
boxes,
cases,
creates,
etc.
(
Society
of
the
Plastics
Industry
2001).
Plastics
bottles
and
blister
packs
are
also
prevalent
in
the
packaging
market.
9­
5
Technological
Advances
There
are
technology
advances
for
plastics
in
the
construction
sector.
Wood­

Plastic
Composite
(
WPC)
manufacturing
is
increasing.
Better
understanding
of
wood,
equipment
advances,
and
additive
developments
has
made
WPC
manufacturing
more
effective
since
the
1990s.
Decking
materials
are
the
largest
and
fastest
growing
WPC
market
driven,
in
part,
by
concerns
about
arsenic
leaching
from
pressure
treated
wood.
WPC
use
in
decks
is
projected
to
more
than
double,
reaching
a
20
percent
market
share
by
2005
(
Clemons,
2002).
The
increased
use
of
WPC
will
increase
the
wastewater
produced
during
WPC
manufacturing.

Construction
Fiber­
Reinforced
Polymer
(
FRP)
composites
are
also
increasing
in
construction.
FRP
is
a
very
durable
composite
which
can
be
used
to
resurface
roads.
A
project
started
in
2001
is
underway
to
resurface
bridges
with
FRP
throughout
Ohio,
using
hundreds
of
millions
of
pounds
of
FRP
(
Port,
2001).
The
large
quantity
of
FRP
needed
for
construction
projects
might
create
an
increase
in
plastics
manufacturing,
increasing
the
volume
of
wastewater
produced.

Research
is
currently
being
performed
to
further
the
applicability
of
plastics
to
the
automotive
sector.
The
organic
chemistry
of
plastic
is
being
investigated
to
develop
polymers
that
can
be
used
in
chassis/
drivetrain
applications
and
the
structural
framework
of
vehicles.
Plastics
are
being
developed
that
will
provide
a
finished
exterior
similar
to
paint
(
Vasilah,
2002).
The
new
plastic
polymers
may
produce
unique
types
of
wastewater
discharges.

Plastics
demand
will
also
increase
in
the
electronic
sector.
Plastics
may
be
used
instead
of
silicon
as
a
substrate
for
organic
semiconductors,
which
are
used
in
electronic
price
tags,
photovoltaic
cells,
and
light
emitting
displays
(
IEE
Solutions,
2002).
Although
plastic
semiconductors
are
not
capable
of
the
same
high
speed
conductivity
as
are
silicon
semiconductors,

plastic
is
less
expensive
and
easier
to
manufacture
than
silicon.
Plastic
semiconductors
are
a
smart
alternative
in
products
where
high
powered
silicon
semiconductors
are
not
needed
(
Port,
2001).
9­
6
The
introduction
of
plastics
in
the
fast
growing
electronics
sector
is
expected
to
increase
plastics
production
and
the
wastewater
produced
during
plastics
production.

9.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
Society
of
the
Plastics
Industry
(
SPI)
is
a
trade
association
representing
the
plastics
manufacturing
industry
in
the
United
States.
SPI's
members
represent
the
processors,
machinery
and
equipment
manufacturers,
and
raw
material
suppliers.
SPI
can
be
contacted
at:

1801
K
Street,
NW,
Suite
600K
Washington,
DC
20006
Telephone
202.974.5200
www.
plasticsindustry.
org
American
Plastics
Council
(
APC)
is
a
trade
association
representing
U.
S.
plastics
manufacturers.
APC
works
to
make
plastics
a
preferred
material
in
all
markets.
The
APC
website
is
located
at:
www.
americanplasticscouncil.
org.

Industry
Journals
and
Other
Publications
Modern
Plastics
and
Modern
Plastics
International
are
the
leading
industry
journals.
For
over
75
years,
Modern
Plastics
has
provided
important
plastics
manufacturing
information.
Modern
Plastics
and
Modern
Plastics
International
also
have
a
comprehensive
website:
www.
modplas.
com.

Plastic
Guide
is
an
online
resource
for
the
plastic
industry,
which
provides
information
about
environmental,
business,
technology,
health,
waste
disposal,
and
economic
issues.
Links
to
trade
associations,
industry
journals,
news
articles,
and
reference
materials
are
also
listed.
The
website
is
located
at:
www.
plasticguide.
com.
9­
7
9.4
References
American
Plastics
Council.
2001.
2001
Percentage
Distribution
of
Thermoplastic
Resin
Sales
and
Captive
Market
Use.
Available
online:
http://
www.
americanplasticscouncil.
org/
benefits/
economic/
PIPSmajmktchart_
2001.
pdf
Clemons,
C.
2002.
"
Wood­
Plastic
Composites
in
the
United
States:
The
Interfacing
of
Two
Industries".
Forest
Products
Journal.
Vol
52,
No.
6,
Pp.
10­
18.

Eastern
Research
Group,
Inc.
(
ERG).
1998.
Preferred
and
Alternative
Methods
for
Estimating
Air
Emission
from
Plastic
Products
Manufacturing.
EPA's
Emission
Inventory
Improvement
Program.
December.

Environmental
Protection
Agency
(
EPA).
1995.
Profile
of
the
Rubber
and
Plastics
Industry.
EPA
Office
of
Enforcement
and
Compliance
Assurance,
Office
of
Compliance
Sector
Notebook.
Washington,
DC.
EPA
310­
R­
95­
016.

First
Research,
Inc.
2001.
First
Research
Industry
Profile
Summary:
Plastic
and
Rubber
Products
Manufacturing.
Available
on
the
First
Research
website:
http://
industryprofiles.
1stresearch.
com/.

IEE
Solutions.
2002.
Film
of
the
future
is
dramatic:
organic
semiconductors
that
ride
on
thin
plastic
would
allow
novel
applications.
Institute
of
Industrial
Engineers,
Inc.
Volume
34,
Issue
11,
Pp
10.

Intertec
Publishing
Corporation.
2000.
"
Report
gauges
global
plastic
pipe
demand."
Concrete
Production.
Volume
103,
Issue
6,
Pp
16.

Midwest
Research
Institute.
1993.
Development
of
Test
Strategies
for
Polymer
Processing
Emission
Factors.
Final
Report.
Cary,
North
Carolina.

Paperloop.
2002.
"
Freedonia
study
says
plastic
will
gain
at
expense
of
paper
through
2006."
Available
online:
www.
paperloop.
com/
inside/
stories/
wk12_
30_
2002/
13.
html.

Port,
O.
2001.
"
Standard
and
Poor's
Industry
Outlook:
Materials:
Plastics".
Businessweek
Online.
Available
online:
http://
www.
businessweek.
com/
2001/
01_
02/
b3714134.
htm.

Society
of
the
Plastics
Industry
2001.
Global
Business
Trends,
Partners,
Hot
Products.
Available
online:
http://
www.
plasticsdatasource.
org/
ab­
149es.
pdf.

Vasilash,
G.
S.
2002.
"
Plastic's
possible
future".
Automotive
Design
and
Production.
Volume
114,
Issue
10,
Pps
26­
27.
9­
8
Woodward,
K.
1999.
"
Aluminum,
Plastic
Strive
to
Upstage
Steel".
Metal
Center
News.
Available
online:
http://
www.
metalcenternews.
com/
1999/
0299/
9902f4.
htm.
10­
1
10.0
SEMICONDUCTOR
MANUFACTURING
INDUSTRY
10.1
Overview
of
Industry
The
Semiconductor
Industry
(
SIC
3674)
is
one
of
the
fastest
growing
industries
in
the
United
States.
According
to
the
United
States
Economic
Census,
this
industry
had
the
second
highest
rate
of
growth
(
144
percent)
in
the
value
of
shipments
between
1992
and
1997.

The
production
of
semiconductors
uses
a
multitude
of
chemicals
and
large
volumes
of
deionized
water.
The
first
step
in
semi­
conductor
manufacturing
is
the
growth
of
silicon
crystals
from
seed
crystals.
The
silicon
crystals
form
ingots
which
are
cut
and
ground
into
wafers.

The
wafers
are
polished
with
an
aluminum
oxide
and
gylceride
solution
and
etched
with
acids.

The
wafers,
or
chips,
undergo
final
polishing
with
silicon
dioxide
particles
in
sodium
hydroxide.

Wafers
are
then
rinsed
with
deionized
water.

The
wafers
are
processed
through
oxidation,
lithography,
etching,
doping,
and
layering.
Between
each
of
these
steps,
the
wafers
are
rinsed
with
water,
acid
or
base
solutions,
or
organic
solvents.
During
oxidation,
wafers
are
heated
or
treated
with
a
chlorine
source
to
produce
an
oxidized
silicon
dioxide
layer
on
the
wafer.
Lithography
is
the
process
of
imaging
a
circuit
pattern
onto
a
wafer,
usually
performed
with
UV
light.
Etching
creates
the
circuit
pattern
on
the
wafer;
it
can
be
performed
using
acid
solutions
or
gases
and
chlorine,
hydrogen
bromide,
carbon
tetrafluoride,
sulfur
hexafluoride,
trifluoromethane,
fluorine,
fluorocarbons,
carbon
tetrachloride,

boron
trichloride,
hydorgen,
oxygen,
helium,
and
argon
(
ERG,
1997).
Doping
adds
impurities,
or
dopants,
to
the
wafer
to
change
the
conductivity
of
the
silicon;
the
dopants
may
contain
arsenic,

boron,
phosphorus,
aluminum,
anitmony,
berylilium,
gallium,
germanium,
gold,
magnesium,

silicon,
tellurium,
or
tin
(
ERG,
1997).
The
wafer
may
be
layered
with
a
material
to
act
as
a
conductor,
semi­
conductor,
or
insulator.
After
final
processing,
the
wafer
is
again
rinsed
with
water.
10­
2
Wastewater
Sources
The
most
significant
source
of
wastewater
is
microchip
washing.
Operations
at
semi­
conductor
manufacturing
plants
typically
generate
4
million
gallons
of
wastewater
per
day
(
IIE,
2001).
The
processes
at
semi­
conductor
manufacturing
plants
require
ultrapure
water;
the
semiconductor
industry
spends
as
much
money
generating
ultrapure
rinse
water
as
it
does
on
purchasing
chemicals
(
Lancaster,
1996).

Current
Regulations
The
semiconductor
industry
is
currently
regulated
under
40
CRF
469,
Electrical
and
Electronic
Components
Point
Source
Category.
This
ELG
was
promulgated
in
1983
and
revised
in
1985.
Electroplating
operations
in
the
semiconductor
industry
are
regulated
under
40
CRF
433,
Metal
Finishing
Point
Source
Category.
40
CRF
433
was
promulgated
in
1983.

10.2
Industry
Trends
and
Changes
This
section
presents
the
changes
and
technological
advances
occurring
in
the
semiconductor
market.

Qualitative
and
Quantitative
Changes
The
semiconductor
industry
experiences
continual
changes
to
its
manufacturing
operations.
The
industry
continually
decreases
the
sizes
of
semiconductors
and
semiconductor
components.
The
industry
refers
to
this
as
Moore's
Law:
the
number
of
components
per
chip
doubles
every
18
months
(
European
Semiconductor
Industry
Association
et
al.,
2002).

Manufacturing
facilities
have
been
set
up
to
have
one
half
of
the
plant
in
operation
while
the
second
half
is
being
upgraded
for
new
technology.
Once
the
second
half
is
online,
the
first
half
is
taken
offline
for
modernization.
10­
3
Technological
Advances
New
technology
decreases
the
amount
of
water
needed
in
semiconductor
production
by
using
an
alternative
method
to
wash
the
chips.
One
method
uses
carbon
dioxide
at
high
temperatures
and
pressures
(
IIE,
2001).
Using
this
"
supercritical
carbon
dioxide"
is
inexpensive
and
cleans
the
chips
without
generating
large
quantities
of
wastewater.

Emerging
technology
can
improve
the
treatment
of
wastewater
from
semiconductor
production,
to
allow
for
recycling
and
reuse.
Membrane
distillation
evaporates
water
across
a
polymer
membrane
(
Economic
Newspaper,
Ltd.,
2000).
Contaminants
remain
on
the
heated
side
of
the
membrane
and
the
water
vapor
condenses
to
water
on
the
clean
side
of
the
membrane.
This
process
cleans
water
so
thoroughly
that
nearly
all
water
is
expected
to
be
able
to
be
reused
in
the
semiconductor
plant.

10.3
Information
Resources
Trade
Associations
Semiconductor
Industry
Association
(
SIA)
is
the
leading
trade
association
representing
the
computer
chip
industry.
The
mission
of
the
SIA
is
to
provide
leadership
for
U.
S.

chip
manufacturers
on
the
issues
of
trade,
technology,
environmental
protection,
and
worker
safety
and
health.
The
SIA
can
be
contacted
at:

Charles
Fraust
Director
of
Environment,
Safety,
and
Health
Affairs
181
Metro
Drive,
Suite
450
San
Jose,
CA
95110
Phone:
(
408)
436­
6600
www.
semichips.
org
10­
4
Semiconductor
Equipment
and
Materials
International
(
SEMI)
is
the
trade
association
serving
the
global
semiconductor
equipment,
materials,
and
flat
panel
display
industries.
The
contact
information
is:

1401
K
Street,
NW
Suite
601
Washington,
DC
20005
USA
Telephone
(
202)
289­
0440
www.
semi.
org
The
World
Semiconductor
Trade
Statistics
(
WSTS)
is
a
global
industry
association
representing
70
semiconductor
manufacturers
worldwide.
The
mission
of
WSTS
is
to
provide
timely,
accurate,
and
authentic
semiconductor
market
data
on
industry
product
shipments.
The
WSTS
can
be
contacted
at:

WSTS
GmbH
Neuboeckweg
22
A
8042
Graz
Austria,
Europe:
Telephone
+
43
(
316)
473
4922
www.
wtst.
org
Industry
Journals
and
Other
Publications
Semiconductor
International
is
the
leading
technical
publication
covering
the
global
semiconductor
industry.
In
addition
to
the
monthly
journal,
there
is
a
website
providing
supplemental
information:
www.
semiconductor.
net.

SemiWorld.
com
is
an
online
journal
that
compiles
the
latest
information
and
journal
articles
about
the
semiconductor
industry.
Online
courses
and
discussions
are
moderated
on
the
website.
Vendor,
manufacturer,
and
research
information
is
also
available.

The
International
Technology
Roadmap
for
Semiconductors
(
ITRS)
is
a
yearly
publication
that
defines
the
state
of
the
industry
and
identifies
the
research
needs
of
the
next
15
10­
5
years.
The
ITRS
is
developed
by
a
coalition
of
industry
trade
associations,
manufacturers,

suppliers,
universities,
and
government
organizations.
The
ITRS
can
be
accessed
online:

http://
public.
itrs.
net.

10.4
References
Business
Communications
Company,
Inc.
1998.
"
Microbar
Product
Treats
Semiconductor
Waste".
Electronic
Materials
Update.
Dec,
12,12.

Economist
Newspaper,
Ltd.
2000.
"
Just
add
water;
Monitor:
Clean
water
for
semiconductors."
Economist
Newspaper
Ltd.
Dec
9.

ERG.
1997.
Draft
Semiconductor
Industry
Profile.

Institute
of
Industrial
Engineers
(
IIE).
2001.
"
Cleaner
chip­
making
method
uses
carbon
dioxide
fluid".
IEE
Solutions.
April,
33,14:
13.

Lancaster,
M.
C.
1996.
"
Ultrapure
Water:
the
real
cost".
Solid
State
Technology.
Sept,
39,9:
70.

European
Semiconductor
Industry
Association,
Japan
Electronics
and
Information
Technology
Industries
Asssociation,
Korea
Semiconductor
Industry
Association,
Taiwan
Semiconductor
Industry
Assoication,
Semiconductor
Industry
Association.
2002.
International
Technology
Roadmap
for
Semiconductors.
Published
online:
http://
public.
itrs.
net.
