SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

Estimating
Cumulative
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperatures
by
John
M.
Bartholow
U.
S.
Geological
Survey
Fort
Collins
Science
Center
2150
Centre
Avenue,
Bldg
C
Fort
Collins,
CO
80526­
8118
Internet:
john_
bartholow@
usgs.
gov
Phone:
(
970)
226­
9319
$
nbsp;
FAX:
(
970)
226­
9230
Editor's
note:
This
paper
was
published
in
the
journal
Rivers.
This
version
is
based
on
the
final
draft
provided
to
the
journal;
as
such,
minor
discrepancies
between
this
and
the
final
manuscript
may
be
present.

This
version
of
the
paper
has
all
of
the
figures
and
tables
converted
to
thumbnails
with
links
to
the
larger
images.
A
version
with
most
of
the
figures
and
tables
inline
is
also
available;
the
download
time
will
be
longer,
but
the
inline
figures
may
be
more
convenient
for
viewing
and
printing.

In
order
to
make
this
article
easier
to
print
out,
a
version
without
the
navigation
tools
on
the
left­
hand
side
is
available
through
the
pageprint
script.

Citation:
Bartholow,
J.
M.,
2000,
Estimating
cumulative
effects
of
clearcutting
on
stream
temperatures,
Rivers,
7(
4),
284­
297.

Contents
Abstract
http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

Introduction
Methods
The
Model
Conceptual
Model
Relating
Cumulative
Clearcut
Effects
To
Stream
Temperatures
Literature
Review
Model
Implementation
Results
Discussion
Acknowledgements
References
Abstract
The
Stream
Segment
Temperature
Model
was
used
to
estimate
cumulative
effects
of
large­
scale
timber
harvest
on
stream
temperature.
Literature
values
were
used
to
create
parameters
for
the
model
for
two
hypothetical
situations,
one
forested
and
the
other
extensively
clearcut.
Results
compared
favorably
with
field
studies
of
extensive
forest
canopy
removal.
The
model
provided
insight
into
the
cumulative
effects
of
clearcutting.
Change
in
stream
shading
was,
as
expected,
the
most
influential
factor
governing
increases
in
maximum
daily
water
temperature,
accounting
for
40%
of
the
total
increase.
Altered
stream
width
was
found
to
be
more
influential
than
changes
to
air
temperature.
Although
the
net
effect
from
clearcutting
was
a
4oC
warming,
increased
wind
and
reduced
humidity
tended
to
cool
the
stream.
Temperature
increases
due
to
clearcutting
persisted
10
km
downstream
into
an
unimpacted
forest
segment
of
the
hypothetical
stream,
but
those
increases
were
moderated
by
cooler
equilibrium
conditions
downstream.
The
model
revealed
that
it
is
a
complex
set
of
factors,
not
single
factors
such
as
shade
or
air
temperature,
that
governs
stream
temperature
dynamics.

Introduction
The
effects
of
manipulating
forest
shade
on
stream
temperature
have
been
the
focus
of
much
debate.
One
school
of
thought
indicates
that
solar
radiation
is
critical
in
controlling
stream
temperature
(
Beschta
et
al.,
1988;
Beschta,
1991;
Beschta,
1997),
such
that
riparian
vegetation,
and
even
large
woody
debris,
is
to
be
thoroughly
protected
during
timber
harvest.
Another
perspective
maintains
that
ambient
air
temperature,
or
a
warm
environment
in
general,
is
the
factor
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gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
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html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

largely
governing
stream
heating
(
Sullivan
et
al.,
1990;
Larson
and
Larson,
1996;
Zwieniecki
and
Newton,
1999).
In
addition,
some
authors
(
Beschta
and
Taylor,
1988;
Beschta
et
al.,
1988)
have
argued
that
any
stream
heating
due
to
timber
practices
is
carried
downstream,
while
others
(
Burton
and
Likens,
1973;
Sullivan
et
al.,
1990;
Zwieniecki
and
Newton,
1999)
have
argued
that
regardless
of
the
site­
specific
effects
of
clearcutting
or
other
disturbances,
streams
return
to
their
thermal
"
signature"
once
the
stream
enters
its
downstream
"
recovery
zone"
and
the
elements
of
heat
flux
to
and
from
the
water
return
to
"
normal".
Although
both
sides
of
the
debate
concede
certain
points,
none
have
made
a
comprehensive
attempt
to
address
the
full
suite
of
factors
involved
in
stream
heating
resulting
from
large­
scale
timber
harvest.

"
Comprehensive"
can
of
course
mean
many
things.
Models
have
been
developed
to
accurately
predict
stream
shading
or
its
effect
on
water
temperature
(
Quigley,
1981;
Theurer
et
al.,
1982;
Knapp
and
Williamson,
1984;
Reid
and
Ferguson,
1992;
Rutherford
et
al.,
1997).
Yet
streamside
vegetation
contributes
to
several
ecosystem
functions,
not
just
stream
shading.
Bank
stability,
woody
debris
accumulation,
seedling
survival,
understory
desiccation
rates,
tree
disease
rates,
changes
in
leaf
morphology,
snowmelt
rate,
summer
flows,
stream
roughness,
and
fish,
invertebrate,
and
algal
biomass
are
all
potentially
influenced
by
the
nature
and
extent
of
riparian
vegetation
(
Tucker
and
Emmingham,
1977;
Beschta,
1991;
Schmid
et
al.,
1991;
Li
et
al.,
1994).
Physical
models
have
been
applied
to
predict
stream
temperature
as
a
function
of
shading
(
e.
g.,
Brown,
1970),
but
few
prior
applications
have
explored
the
cumulative
effects
of
vegetative
removal
on
the
streamside
ecosystem.
"
Cumulative"
in
this
sense
implies
not
simply
direct
effects,
but
also
second­
order
consequences,
namely
meteorologic
and
hydrologic
changes
to
the
system
in
question.

The
objective
of
this
paper
is
to
quantify
the
cumulative
effects
that
large­
scale
clearcutting
may
have
on
stream
temperatures
and
determine
the
relative
contribution
of
various
physical
changes
to
that
effect.
The
approach
used
was
to
1.
develop
a
conceptual
model
of
the
multiple
effects
of
clearcutting
with
some
qualitative
hypotheses
concerning
the
nature
of
expected
changes;
2.
perform
a
literature
review
to
determine
realistic
parameters
for
such
a
model
in
a
hypothetical
stream
setting;
3.
implement
and
test
the
model;
4.
quantify
the
degree
to
which
incremental
physical
changes
cumulatively
influence
stream
temperatures;
and
5.
verify
that
the
results
are
in
general
agreement
with
previous
empirical
data.

http://
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usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

Methods
The
Model
The
Stream
Network
Temperature
Model
(
SNTEMP;
Theurer
et
al.,
1984)
has
been
used
to
predict
longitudinal
stream
temperatures
caused
by
alterations
in
flow
regimes,
dam
release
temperature,
or
the
channel,
including
stream
canopy
manipulation.
This
model
is
a
component
of
the
Instream
Flow
Incremental
Methodology
(
IFIM;
Stalnaker
et
al.,
1995)
and
is
a
first­
principles
model
based
on
well­
studied
physical
phenomena.
Supplied
with
high
quality
input
data,
the
SNTEMP
model
has
been
shown
to
simulate
mean
daily
stream
temperatures
with
a
high
degree
of
accuracy,
typically
<
0.5oC,
with
little
or
no
calibration
(
Bartholow,
1991).
Close
agreement
between
measured
and
simulated
stream
temperatures,
in
turn,
supports
using
this
and
similar
models
in
an
exploratory
mode
(
e.
g.,
What
if
we
changed
the
canopy
cover
by
a
certain
percentage?).
The
model
has
been
used
infrequently
to
address
multiple
perturbations,
and
there
is
no
published
information
to
indicate
its
application
to
assess
the
cumulative
effects
of
major
land
use
changes
on
stream
temperature.

The
Stream
Network
Temperature
Model
is
a
mechanistic,
steady
state
onedimensional
heat
transport
model
that
predicts
daily
mean
and
maximum
water
temperatures.
It
also
predicts
both
mean
and
maximum
equilibrium
temperatures,
the
theoretical
values
approached
if
all
model
inputs
remained
the
same
for
a
long
time.
Net
heat
flux
is
calculated
as
the
sum
of
heat
from
long­
wave
atmospheric
radiation,
direct
short­
wave
solar
radiation,
convection,
conduction,
evaporation,
streamside
shading,
streambed
fluid
friction,
and
the
water's
back
radiation.
The
model
requires
that
the
hydrologic
network
be
divided
into
homogeneous
stream
segments,
each
described
by
flow,
length,
top
width,
slope,
channel
roughness
(
Manning's
n)
or
travel
time,
and
shading
characteristics.
Meteorological
data
used
in
the
model
are
air
temperature,
relative
humidity,
wind
speed,
percent
possible
sun
(
inverse
of
cloud
cover),
and
ground­
level
solar
radiation.
The
model
calculates
within­
segment
streamflow
accretions
by
mass
balance,
but
groundwater
accretion
temperatures
are
necessary
inputs.
For
a
complete
list
of
data
requirements,
see
Theurer
et
al.
(
1984)
and
Bartholow
(
1989).
The
model's
analytic
components
have
been
validated
(
Theurer
and
Voos,
1982;
Theurer,
1985;
Mattax
and
Quigley,
1989;
Bartholow,
1991),
and
its
performance
has
compared
favorably
with
other
water
temperature
models
ranging
from
simple
to
more
complex
(
Sullivan
et
al.,
1990;
Tu,
unpublished
report;
Tu
et
al.,
1992).

Like
any
model,
SNTEMP
has
strengths
and
weaknesses
(
Theurer
et
al.,
1984;
Bartholow,
1989).
It
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gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
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html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

1.
may
be
applied
to
a
stream
network
of
any
order
using
time
steps
ranging
from
one
day
to
one
month;
2.
predicts
solar
radiation
as
a
function
of
latitude,
time
of
year
and
prevailing
meteorology;
3.
predicts
shading
from
riparian
and
topographic
elements;
4.
corrects
air
temperature,
relative
humidity,
and
atmospheric
pressure
for
elevation
within
the
watershed;
5.
uses
regression
aids
to
fill
and/
or
smooth
missing
observed
water
temperature
measurements
at
boundary
conditions;
and
6.
provides
statistical
goodness­
of­
fit
tools
to
help
judge
the
model's
power
of
estimation.

An
important
aspect
of
the
model's
design
was
to
produce
reasonable
predictions
with
readily
available
input
data.
The
model
also
has
limitations.
It
is
not
applicable
for
rapidly
varying
flows
such
as
hydropeaking.
Also,
maximum
temperature
predictions
are
not
as
accurate
as
mean
temperature
predictions
(
Sullivan
et
al.,
1990)
without
additional
calibration.
In
particular,
the
model
has
no
"
memory"
of
upstream
conditions
that
may
influence
downstream
maximum
temperatures
(
Bartholow,
1989).
The
model
assumes
that
maximum
temperatures
may
be
derived
by
heating
a
parcel
of
water
from
solar
noon
to
sunset.
Depending
on
the
travel
time,
that
parcel
may
have
originated
above
the
segment
being
modeled,
and
therefore
may
have
traveled
through
radically
different
conditions.
This
"
memory"
problem
is
minimized
when
segments
are
long
(
generally
greater
than
10
km)
such
that
the
downstream
segment
conditions
dominate
all
heat
flux.

The
Stream
Network
Temperature
Model
has
been
used
in
a
variety
of
applications.
It
was
verified
by
Theurer
et
al.
(
1982,
1985)
using
data
from
two
vastly
different
case
studies
to
ensure
model
applicability:
the
relatively
large
upper
Colorado
River
basin
and
the
much
smaller
Tucannon
River
in
Washington
State.
Since
initial
development,
the
model
has
been
used
widely,
especially
to
assess
biological
flow
requirements
in
bypass
reaches
below
hydropower
facilities
(
Lifton
et
al.,
1985,
1987;
Voos
et
al.,
1987).
In
addition,
SNTEMP
has
been
used
in
a
broad
range
of
climates,
from
the
cold
water
of
Alaska
(
Meyer
et
al.,
unpublished
paper)
to
the
warmer
waters
of
Nebraska
(
Dinan,
unpublished
paper).
The
model
has
also
been
applied
in
less
conventional
situations,
such
as
evaluating
standards
for
streamside
timber
removal
(
Sullivan
et
al.,
1990),
revegetation
requirements
to
increase
shading
and
channel
restoration
(
Bartholow,
1991,
1993),
and
channel
manipulation
to
increase
salmon
rearing
habitat
by
removing
vegetated
berms
(
Zedonis,
1994).
The
use
of
SNTEMP
in
conjunction
with
fish
population
models
to
supply
temperatures
for
egg
incubation,
juvenile
growth,
and
mortality
is
a
recent
trend
(
Bartholow
et
al.,

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gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

1993).

Another
model,
the
Stream
Segment
Temperature
model
(
SSTEMP;
U.
S.
Geological
Survey,
2000)
was
developed
as
a
subset
of
SNTEMP,
applicable
only
for
single
stream
reaches
and
single
time
steps.
This
model
uses
the
same
numerical
methods
as
SNTEMP,
but
was
designed
for
Microsoft
WindowsTM
and
is
relatively
easy
to
use
in
an
exploratory
mode.
Both
models
have
proven
popular
since
their
release,
with
documentation
and
limited
technical
support
currently
available
from
the
U.
S.
Geological
Survey
(
2000).
For
modeling
single
segments,
or
very
simple
networks,
SSTEMP
is
interchangeable
with
SNTEMP
and
was
used
for
this
effort.

Conceptual
Model
Relating
Cumulative
Clearcut
Effects
To
Stream
Temperatures
Clearcutting
is
a
timber
harvest
practice
in
which
all
trees
are
removed
from
a
designated
area,
with
the
possible
exception
of
snags
protected
for
wildlife
benefits
(
Brown,
1970).
Clearcut
areas
may
range
from
small
parcels
up
to
much
larger
areas
covering
small
watersheds.
Although
clearcutting
techniques
have
been
under
increased
scrutiny
in
recent
years,
especially
in
fragile
ecosystems,
the
method
remains
in
use
through
large
areas
of
the
United
States
and
Canada
(
Young,
2000).
This
is
particularly
true
in
the
Pacific
Northwest,
with
annual
clearcuts
totaling
more
than
4,000
hectares
in
California
alone,
although
with
ever
more
stringent
Best
Management
Practices
(
BMPs)
to
safeguard
the
natural
environment
(
Russ
Henly,
California
Dept.
of
Forestry
and
Fire
Protection,
personal
communication).
Perhaps
the
single
most
widely
used
protective
measure
is
to
leave
uncut
buffer
strips
along
riparian
zones.
Gross
effects
of
clearcutting
have
been
extensively
cataloged
(
Anderson,
1973;
Beschta
et
al.,
1988).
Here
I
will
focus
on
effects
directly
related
to
stream
temperature,
namely
meteorology,
hydrology,
and
stream
geometry.
Since
such
effects
would
be
expected
to
be
a
function
of
the
geographic
extent
and
time
of
year,
and
since
most
biological
effects
are
related
to
high
temperatures,
I
chose
to
focus
on
the
warm
summer
period
and
larger
scale
disturbances.
Therefore,
I
have
ignored
effects
of
vegetative
loss
on
winter
temperatures
(
Hartman
et
al.,
1984)
and
winter
diel
fluctuations
(
Martin
et
al.,
1986).

Conceptually,
there
are
many
effects
of
landscape­
scale
vegetative
removal
on
local
meteorology
and
hydrology.
Tree
removal
can
be
expected
to
have
effects
on
local
microclimates.
Air
temperature
may
be
increased
or
decreased
depending
on
the
time
of
day.
Wind
resistance
would
undoubtedly
decline,
leading
to
an
increase
in
wind
speeds
near
the
stream
and
increased
evaporative
cooling.
Relative
humidity
likely
would
be
reduced
given
a
decrease
in
local
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AM]
SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

vegetative
transpiration
coupled
with
increased
airflow
and
surficial
evaporation.
Uninterrupted
solar
radiation
might
be
expected
to
warm
the
ground,
which
in
turn
could
warm
interflow
accretion
temperatures
to
the
stream.
On
a
watershed
scale,
removal
of
vegetation
might
increase
the
surface
reflectivity
(
i.
e.,
how
much
of
the
incoming
solar
radiation
is
reflected
back
into
the
atmosphere).
Further,
it
is
conceivable
that
there
would
be
an
increase
in
airborne
dust
since
the
ability
of
foliage
to
capture
and
filter
dust
would
be
reduced.
Increased
dust
could
affect
the
amount
of
solar
radiation
reaching
ground
level.

Changes
in
microclimates
and
vegetative
transpiration
may
result
in
hydrologic
alterations.
Overall
water
yield
in
the
form
of
accretions
to
the
stream
may
increase.
Further,
the
timing
of
stormwater
runoff
is
likely
to
shift
with
the
watershed
becoming
more
"
flashy."
In
addition,
with
few
exceptions,
clearcutting
usually
involves
extensive
haul
road
construction.
Best
Management
Practices
have
significantly
reduced
environmental
degradation
due
to
road
construction.
However,
some
unavoidable
sedimentation
effects
remain,
potentially
affecting
stream
width
and
stream
roughness
in
addition
to
water
quality.
Channel
geometry
changes
may
affect
stream
depth
and
travel
time.
Aggredation
may
affect
the
stream
gradient
and,
potentially,
stream
width
and
length.
Increased
sedimentation
may
also
influence
the
insulation
of
streamflow
from
ground
temperatures
and
reduce
the
rate
of
exchange
between
surface
waters
and
the
hyporheic
zone
(
Ronan
et
al.,
1998).
The
following
section
reviews
the
literature
available
for
each
of
the
above
possibilities.

Literature
Review
From
the
above
conceptual
model,
it
is
relatively
easy
to
connect
the
many
environmental
effects
of
clearcutting
to
mechanisms
known
to
influence
water
temperature.
It
is
difficult
to
draw
a
clear
boundary
around
the
relative
magnitude
of
effects
without
doing
some
"
ground
truthing"
with
values
reported
in
the
literature.
A
brief
survey
has
been
summarized
in
Table
1.
The
review
was
not
meant
to
be
exhaustive,
but
rather
representative
of
what
one
may
find
in
this
rather
broad
field.
Often,
values
were
not
found
in
the
text,
but
were
estimated
from
figures
provided
by
the
authors;
these
are
flagged
as
estimates.
No
values
were
was
found
for
some
elements
of
the
conceptual
model.

Table
1.
Documented
changes
to
the
environment
of
small
streams
and
watersheds
associated
with
extensive
forest
clearing.
Changes
are
representative
of
hot
summer
days
and
indicate
the
mean
daily
effect
unless
otherwise
indicated.

http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

Estimates
(
E)
were
derived
from
figures
provided
by
authors.

Air
Temperature.
Edgerton
and
McConnell
(
1976)
showed
that
removing
all
or
a
portion
of
the
tree
canopy
resulted
in
cooler
terrestrial
air
temperatures
at
night
and
warmer
temperatures
during
the
day,
enough
to
influence
thermal
cover
sought
by
elk
(
Cervus
canadensis)
on
their
eastern
Oregon
summer
range.
Increases
in
maximum
air
temperature
varied
from
5
to
7oC
for
the
hottest
days
(
estimate).
However,
the
mean
daily
air
temperature
did
not
appear
to
have
changed
substantially
since
the
maximum
temperatures
were
offset
by
almost
equal
changes
to
the
minima.
Similar
temperatures
have
been
commonly
reported
(
Childs
and
Flint,
1987;
Fowler
et
al.,
1987),
even
with
extensive
clearcuts
(
Holtby,
1988).
In
an
evaluation
of
buffer
strip
width,
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997)
found
that
air
temperatures
immediately
adjacent
to
the
ground
increased
4.5oC
during
the
day
and
about
0.5oC
at
night
(
estimate).
Fowler
and
Anderson
(
1987)
measured
a
0.9oC
air
temperature
increase
in
clearcut
areas,
but
temperatures
were
also
3oC
higher
in
the
adjacent
forest.
Chen
et
al.
(
1993)
found
similar
(
2.1oC)
increases.
All
measurements
reported
here
were
made
over
land
instead
of
water,
but
in
aggregate
support
about
a
2oC
increase
in
ambient
mean
daily
air
temperature
resulting
from
extensive
clearcutting.

Relative
Humidity.
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997)
examined
changes
in
relative
humidity
within
17
to
72
m
buffer
strips.
The
focus
of
their
study
was
to
document
changes
along
the
gradient
from
forested
to
clearcut
areas,
so
they
did
not
explicitly
report
pre­
to
post­
harvest
changes
at
the
stream.
However,
there
appeared
to
be
a
reduction
in
relative
humidity
at
the
stream
of
7%
during
the
day
and
6%
at
night
(
estimate).
Relative
humidity
at
stream
sites
increased
exponentially
with
buffer
width.
Similarly,
a
study
by
Chen
et
al.
(
1993)
showed
a
decrease
of
about
11%
in
mean
daily
relative
humidity
on
clear
days
at
the
edges
of
clearcuts.

Groundwater
Inflows.
Stednick
(
1996)
comprehensively
reviewed
studies
of
timber
harvest
effects
on
water
yield.
Although
he
did
not
provide
a
summary
of
changes
to
either
peak
or
base
flows,
his
work
suggested
that
changes
in
water
yield
become
measurable
after
about
20%
of
the
catchment
area
is
harvested.
Harr
et
al.
(
1982)
found
an
increased
water
yield
in
two
small
central
Oregon
watersheds
cut
to
varying
degrees.
Although
increased
yield
was
substantial
(
20­
40
cm),
neither
the
size
nor
timing
of
peak
flows
changed
significantly.
Instead,
the
number
of
low­
flow
days
during
the
summer,
including
drought
years,
decreased,
perhaps
due
to
reduced
evapotranspiration.
Unfortunately,
the
authors
noted
that
"
Variation
in
volume
of
flow
during
low­
flow
periods
precluded
any
meaningful
analyses
of
low­
flow
volumes."
Burton
(
1997)
reported
that
the
mean
annual
daily
discharge
increased
by
66%
on
a
large
(
2145
hectare)
watershed
in
http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
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Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

northern
Utah
due
to
a
25%
clearcut,
but
the
increase
was
in
peak
flows,
not
base
flows.
Jones
and
Grant
(
1996)
report
similar
results.
Fowler
et
al.
(
1987)
found
no
significant
increases
in
annual
water
yield
for
three
small
watersheds
in
northeastern
Oregon.
Although
overall
water
yield
may
increase
with
logging,
the
literature
reviewed
does
not
appear
to
support
any
significant
change
to
low
summer
base
flows.

Ground
Temperature.
The
SSTEMP
model
uses
ground
temperature
as
one
element
in
calculating
conductive
heat
flux.
Ground
temperature
may
also
be
used
as
a
surrogate
for
accretion
temperatures
if
no
other
source
of
information
is
available.
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997)
showed
substantial
changes
in
soil
temperature
immediately
outside
17
to
72
m
wide
buffer
strips.
Increases
averaged
about
4oC
during
the
day
and
3.5oC
during
the
night
(
estimate).
Although
at­
stream
soil
temperatures
seemed
unchanged,
the
overall
effect
of
increased
soil
temperature
appeared
to
exert
a
strong
influence
on
stream
temperature,
more
so
than
buffer
strip
width,
air
temperature,
or
wind
speed.
Similarly,
Hewlett
and
Fortson
(
1982)
suggested
that
elevated
ground
temperature
might
have
explained
a
large
portion
of
increases
in
stream
temperature
in
a
low
gradient
piedmont
stream.
Childs
and
Flint
(
1987)
measured
large
differences
in
ground
temperature
between
clearcut
and
shelterwood
cut
sites
in
southwestern
Oregon.
Maximum
temperatures
differed
by
as
much
as
17oC
at
20
mm
deep
and
by
about
5oC
at
320
mm
(
estimate
from
figure).
Fowler
and
Anderson
(
1987)
found
that
250­
mm
ground
temperatures
averaged
2.4oC
cooler
in
forested
conditions,
while
Chen
et
al.
(
1993)
found
a
4.4oC
increase
in
soil
temperatures
at
a
depth
of
100
mm.
On
balance,
it
appears
that
one
could
reasonably
expect
a
small
increase
in
ground
temperature
that
would
influence
interflow
temperatures
adjacent
to
the
stream.

Wind
Speed.
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997)
reported
almost
no
change
in
wind
speed
at
stream
locations
within
buffer
strips
adjacent
to
clearcuts.
Speeds
quickly
approached
upland
conditions
toward
the
edges
of
the
buffers,
with
an
indication
that
wind
actually
increased
substantially
at
distances
of
about
15
m
from
the
edge
of
the
strip,
and
then
declined
farther
upslope
to
preharvest
conditions.
Chen
et
al.
(
1993)
documented
increases
in
both
peak
and
steady
winds
in
clearcut
areas;
increments
ranged
from
0.7
to
1.2
m/
s
(
estimated).

Solar
Radiation.
Estimates
of
ground
level
solar
radiation
may
be
used
as
a
supplemental
input
to
SSTEMP.
Radiation
input
determines
what
reaches
the
ground
in
the
absence
of
any
shading
from
topography
or
vegetation.
Literature
values
on
measured
solar
radiation,
however,
can
help
estimate
the
shading
effects
of
forest
cover.
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997)
examined
changes
in
mean
daily
solar
radiation
within
buffer
strips.
Post­
harvest
radiation
increased
approximately
200%
at
the
stream
(
estimate)
even
with
"
leave"
trees,
increasing
http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

to
full
sun
values
beyond
the
edge
of
the
strips.
The
total
amount
of
radiation
at
the
stream
decreased
exponentially
with
buffer
width.

Ground
Reflectivity.
Theurer's
(
1984)
temperature
model
uses
an
estimate
of
ground
reflectivity
to
calculate
the
amount
of
ground­
level
short
wave
solar
radiation
reflected
back
to
the
atmosphere.
This
uncommonly
measured
value
was
estimated
by
Holbo
and
Childs
(
1987)
in
their
model
of
net
radiation
balance
on
clearcut
areas
in
southwestern
Oregon.
Although
there
was
variability
among
sites,
they
estimated
a
small
(
6%)
decrease
in
total
reflectivity
comparing
shelterwood
to
slashburned
clearcut
sites.
This
is
in
contrast
with
generally
accepted
values
for
the
albedo
of
surface
cover
that
suggests
about
a
5%
increase
in
reflectivity
on
conversion
from
coniferous
vegetation
to
open
meadow
land
(
Halverson
and
Smith,
1979).

Stream
Width.
Dose
and
Roper
(
1994)
found
a
moderate
positive
correlation
between
timber
harvest
activity
(
cut
area,
road
density,
and
large
woody
debris)
and
low­
flow
wetted
stream
widths
within
a
1400
km2
watershed
in
southwestern
Oregon.
Although
some
of
the
streams
did
not
appear
to
have
changed
from
30­
year
old
historical
surveys,
the
median
increase
was
145%
of
the
prelogging
width
while
the
top
10%
of
sites
increased
by
223%
or
more.
Much
of
the
increase
was
attributed
to
lack
of
recovery
from
a
peak
flow
event
20
years
prior
to
post­
harvest
measurements.
Heede
(
1991)
measured
changes
in
channel
crosssectional
area
for
streams
in
the
White
Mountains
of
Arizona.
He
found
stream
width
increases
averaging
10%
in
the
logged
watershed
compared
to
+
2.5%
in
the
unlogged
portion.
He
estimated
that
all
of
the
streams
were
in
a
disequilibrium
condition
prior
to
harvest.

In
my
review
of
the
literature,
I
found
no
useful
information
on
changes
in
airborne
dust,
stream
slopes,
or
stream
length
due
to
timber
harvest.
Theurer
et
al.
(
1984)
however
reported
a
3%
decrease
in
a
100­
km
portion
of
the
Tucannon
River
after
extensive
land
use
alterations,
including
"
straightening"
due
to
flooding
of
the
degraded
system.
Stream
slopes
may
respond
on
much
longer
time
scales
and
site­
specific
airborne
dust
may
be
infrequently
investigated.

Model
Implementation
Values
in
Table
1
were
subjectively
synthesized
to
create
parameters
for
an
SSTEMP
model
of
a
hypothetical
small
stream.
Latitude
and
elevation
were
assumed
similar
to
the
Pacific
Northwest
watersheds
used
to
develop
Table
1.
The
simulation
was
run
for
early
August
to
represent
a
hot,
low
flow
day,
and
was
arbitrarily
assigned
a
length
of
10
km,
a
slope
of
3%,
and
a
discharge
of
0.425
m3/
s
(
15
cfs).
Solar
radiation
was
internally
calculated
by
the
model
for
http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

that
time
of
year,
latitude
(
46.25oN)
and
other
meteorological
values.
The
change
in
solar
radiation
for
the
clearcut
simulation
(
Table
1)
is
attributable
to
altered
ground
reflectivity.
I
assumed
that
riparian
buffer
strips
(
about
50%
stream
surface
shading)
would
be
maintained
by
current
regulatory
BMPs,
but
I
also
assumed
that
there
would
still
be
a
5%
change
in
direct
riparian
shading
per
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997).
Inflow
temperature
was
assumed
to
represent
a
cold,
spring­
fed
stream
(
9oC).
The
model
was
run
for
a
forested
(
baseline)
case
and
for
a
watershed­
wide
clearcut
case,
recording
the
differences
in
predicted
maximum
daily
water
temperature
for
each
single
variable
change,
and
for
the
set
as
a
whole.
The
contribution
that
each
parameter
had
singly
on
the
total
change
in
maximum
temperature
was
calculated
as
a
simple
proportion.
Model­
derived
temperatures
were
recorded
to
the
nearest
hundredth
degree,
not
because
it
is
possible
to
measure
with
this
resolution
in
the
field,
but
because
it
is
instructive
in
comparing
magnitudes
and
because
it
facilitates
more
accurate
conversion
to
the
Fahrenheit
scale
if
desired.

Results
Model
results
for
the
individual
forested
and
clearcut
simulations
are
given
in
Table
2
and
Figure
1.
Overall,
clearcutting
increased
mean
daily
temperatures
by
2.4oC
and
maximum
temperatures
by
3.6oC
over
the
10­
km
reach.
Stream
shading
was
the
most
sensitive
variable,
accounting
for
1.48oC
of
the
increase
in
maximum
daily
water
temperature,
although
stream
width
was
a
close
second,
accounting
for
1.35oC.
Air
temperature
was
the
next
most
sensitive
single
variable,
adding
0.61oC
to
the
maximum.
Three
variables
(
relative
humidity,
wind
speed,
and
ground
reflectivity)
resulted
in
reductions
in
the
maximum
daily
stream
temperature.
There
was
a
small
synergistic
effect
(+
0.13oC)
attributable
to
all
variables
combined.

Table
2.
Mean
daily
input
values
used
to
simulate
hypothetical
forested
and
clearcut
stream
temperatures,
and
resulting
change
in
maximum
temperature
for
each
attribute
singly,
and
collectively,
as
predicted
by
SSTEMP
simulations.
Collective
change
to
mean
daily
and
maximum
daily
water
temperature
is
also
given.
No
change
is
indicated
by
"­­­".

http://
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gov/
SMIG/
features_
0902/
clearcut.
html
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SMIG
­­
Effects
of
Clearcutting
on
Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

Figure
1.
Percent
of
total
thermal
gain
attributable
to
single
variables
from
basinwide
clearcutting
a
small,
hypothetical
stream.
The
last
item,
synergistic,
is
that
additional
gain
resulting
from
all
variables
combined.
Estimates
were
computed
based
on
simulations
using
the
SSTEMP
model.

To
explore
the
downstream
consequences
of
upstream
changes,
SSTEMP
was
used
to
project
outflow
temperatures
from
the
hypothetical
study
area
another
10
km
downstream
through
an
unimpacted
watershed
with
attributes
exactly
the
same
as
for
the
forested
condition
listed
in
Table
2,
but
with
mean
inflow
water
temperatures
increasing
as
predicted
from
13.24oC
to
15.66oC.
As
shown
in
Table
3,
the
forested­
to­
forested
pair
predicted
a
mean
outflow
temperature
of
15.78oC
and
a
maximum
of
20.38oC.
The
clearcut­
to­
forested
linkage
predicts
a
mean
outflow
temperature
of
17.18oC
with
a
maximum
of
21.52oC.
As
expected,
equilibrium
temperatures
were
identical
in
all
forested
simulations
because
the
governing
hydrologic,
meteorologic,
and
stream
geometry
conditions
were
identical.

Table
3.
Comparison
of
simulated
outflow
temperatures
(
oC)
for
upstream
"
treatment"
and
downstream
"
recovery
zone"
simulations
based
on
SSTEMP
projections.
Outflow
temperatures
for
the
upstream
segment
became
inflow
temperatures
for
the
downstream
segment.
Note
that
equilibrium
temperatures
are
the
same
for
all
forested
conditions.

Discussion
Quantifying
the
multiple
effects
of
clearcutting
has
been
enlightening.
The
model
has
shown
that
it
is
a
complex
set
of
factors,
not
simply
a
single
factor,
that
governs
stream
temperature
increases
due
to
large­
scale
timber
harvest.
Of
foremost
importance,
even
slight
alterations
to
stream
shading
during
harvest
(
intended
to
emulate
adherence
to
strict
BMPs)
may
result
in
increases
to
maximum
daily
water
temperature.
Air
temperature
did
not
appear
to
be
as
important
in
governing
the
increase
in
maximum
daily
water
temperature
as
direct
solar
radiation.
Although
air
temperature
was
influential,
the
more
subtle
second­
order
effect
of
stream
widening
was
even
more
important.
Not
all
harvesthttp
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Temperature
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article:
September
2002)

related
effects
generated
in
stream
warming;
increased
wind
speed
and
reduced
humidity
resulted
in
stream
cooling.
The
2.4oC
increase
in
mean
upstream
temperature
due
to
timber
harvest
persisted
10
km
downstream
into
an
unimpacted
forest
segment
of
the
hypothetical
stream,
but
those
increases
translated
to
only
a
1.4oC
increase
in
mean
temperature
10
km
farther
downstream
because
they
were
moderated
by
cooler
equilibrium
conditions.
Thus
the
downstream
equilibrium
temperature
tends
to
"
recover"
temperature
increases
(
sensu
Zwieniecki
and
Newton,
1999),
but
cannot
fully
mitigate
those
increases.
The
model
did
not
suggest
a
"
strong
influence"
of
ground
temperatures
on
stream
temperature
as
suggested
by
Hewlett
and
Fortson
(
1982)
and
Brosofske
et
al.
(
1997),
but
this
is
the
subject
of
ongoing
research
(
Johnson
and
Jones,
in
press).
The
results
did,
however,
confirm
both
the
importance
of
riparian
shade
(
Beschta,
1997),
in
contrast
to
the
views
of
Larson
and
Larson
(
1996),
and
confirmed
the
hypothesis
of
a
stream's
"
thermal
signature"
(
Zwieniecki
and
Newton,
1999).

A
more
thorough
investigation
may
be
warranted
for
two
reasons.
First,
attributes
in
downstream
areas
would
not
be
expected
to
remain
the
same
as
upstream.
Air
temperatures
would
warm
with
decreased
elevation
(
Theurer
et
al.,
1984)
and
exposure
would
increase
given
"
natural"
changes
to
stream
width
in
the
longitudinal
direction
(
Leopold
et
al.,
1964).
Second,
the
temperature
model
has
no
memory
of
upstream
conditions.
Therefore
it
cannot
"
remember"
that
incoming
maximum
water
temperatures
may
be
elevated
from
their
expected
value.
Nevertheless,
the
conservative
assumptions
used
here
argue
both
for
persistence
of
effects
and
eventual
convergence
on
"
signature"
temperatures
for
this
moderately
sized
stream.
Smaller
streams,
or
those
even
more
thoroughly
shaded
and
having
an
equilibrium
temperature
cooler
than
inflowing
waters,
might
be
expected
to
recover
more
quickly
(
Zwieniecki
and
Newton,
1999).
From
a
land
management
perspective,
however,
what
may
be
most
relevant
is
whether
factors
other
than
water
temperature,
most
notably
stream
width,
are
impacted
downstream.
If
the
width
were
increased
in
a
forested
downstream
setting
due
to
upstream
land
use
changes,
cooling
attributable
to
relative
humidity
and
wind
speed
may
no
longer
partially
offset
upstream
temperature
increases.

Few
models
have
been
used
in
an
attempt
to
understand
cumulative
effects
related
to
stream
temperatures.
Brown
(
1970)
pioneered
work
in
this
area
showing
how
to
calculate
maximum
changes
in
stream
temperature
from
different
degrees
of
clearcut.
However,
Brown's
model
relied
almost
exclusively
on
estimates
of
changes
in
surface
area
exposed
to
the
sun
and
did
not
address
cumulative
effects
as
examined
here.
To
get
at
cumulative
effects,
I
have
fabricated
a
stream
meant
to
be
representative
of
a
system
in
the
Pacific
Northwest.
Obviously,
the
simulation
results
would
be
different
if
I
had
made
different
assumptions,
particularly
on
the
scale
of
effects,
as
river
heat
budgets
are
highly
variable
in
both
time
and
space
(
Webb
and
Zhang,
1997).
But
do
the
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Temperature
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article:
September
2002)

results
compare
favorably
with
observations
made
from
actual
cases?
There
are
many
examples
in
the
literature
that
can
be
used
to
assess
the
realism
of
model
predictions.
Some
examples,
however,
do
not
reflect
recent
timber
harvest
BMPs;
therefore
direct
comparisons
should
be
tempered
with
caution.

Beschta
and
Taylor
(
1988)
documented
changes
in
the
325­
km2
Salmon
Creek
watershed
in
western
Oregon
that
accompanied
removal
of
forest
cover
over
a
29­
year
period.
They
calculated
that
average
daily
maximum
stream
temperatures
increased
6oC
at
the
watershed's
mouth
for
the
ten
warmest
days
of
each
year,
even
although
air
temperatures
appeared
to
decline
over
the
same
period.
They
noted
that
it
was
difficult
to
draw
a
tight
cause­
and­
effect
chain
from
timber
harvest
to
stream
temperature
given
natural
hydrologic
events
in
combination
with
changes
in
harvest
activity
and
management
practices.
Levno
and
Rothacher
(
1967)
reported
a
2.2oC
increase
in
weekly
maximum
temperatures
after
100%
logging
of
one
small
61­
hectare
watershed
in
Oregon.
Another
similar
watershed
was
only
25%
cut,
but
suffered
from
extensive
scour
in
a
1964
flood.
This
watershed
showed
mean
monthly
water
temperature
increases
of
3.9o
to
6.7oC
from
April
through
August
following
the
flood.
Brown
and
Krygier
(
1970)
reported
an
average
monthly
maximum
temperature
increase
of
about
8oC
after
clearcutting
a
small
Oregon
watershed.
They
attributed
changes
to
increased
solar
radiation
reaching
the
stream.
Amaranthus
et
al.
(
1989)
described
maximum
water
temperature
increases
ranging
from
3.3o
to
19oC
in
adjacent
southern
Oregon
watersheds
burned
to
varying
degrees.
Increases
were
negatively
correlated
with
summer
streamflow
and
remaining
streamside
shading,
even
if
shading
was
composed
largely
of
dead
vegetation.
Kopperdahl
et
al.
(
1971)
reported
maximum
water
temperature
increases
of
3.3
to
9.4oC
in
small
watersheds
cut
and
"
roaded"
to
varying
degrees
in
the
fog
belt
of
northern
California,
an
area
where
air
temperatures
and
solar
radiation
are
generally
moderate.
However,
much
of
the
temperature
increase
may
have
been
due
to
bulldozers
"
working"
the
streams.
The
report
also
summarized
other
studies
documenting
temperature
changes
in
nearby
watersheds
of
11oC
and
13.8oC.
Feller
(
1981)
recorded
maximum
temperature
changes
of
3.6
to
5.7oC
in
two
coastal
British
Columbia
watersheds
paired
with
untouched
areas,
with
effects
lasting
seven
years
or
longer
depending
on
the
treatment.
Holtby
(
1988)
examined
the
effects
of
extensive
(
41%)
clearcuts
on
Carnation
Creek
in
British
Columbia.
Although
he
found
no
significant
logging
effect
on
air
temperatures,
every
month
exhibited
an
increase
in
mean
monthly
water
temperature,
ranging
from
0.71oC
in
December
to
3.25oC
in
August.

In
an
extensive
study,
Barton
et
al.
(
1985)
examined
the
influence
of
the
size
(
width
and
length)
of
buffer
strips
on
maximum
stream
temperature
in
southern
Ontario.
They
found
a
strong
positive
correlation
between
the
percent
of
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Stream
Temperature
(
article:
September
2002)

watershed
forested
and
maximum
water
temperatures.
Unvegetated
watersheds
averaged
5oC
warmer
than
those
with
100%
forest
coverage.
Swift
and
Messer
(
1971)
related
maximum
water
temperature
to
a
variety
of
timber
harvest
treatments
in
southern
Appalachians
hardwood
forests.
Generally,
maximum
water
temperatures
increased
about
4oC,
but
extreme
clearing
was
accompanied
by
changes
of
up
to
7oC.
Hewlett
and
Forston
(
1982)
documented
maximum
stream
temperature
increases
of
11oC
with
buffers
in
a
clearcut
loblolly
pine
stream
in
the
southeast
United
States.
Rishel
et
al.
(
1982)
found
average
monthly
maximum
temperature
increases
of
4.4oC
in
the
northeast
after
extensive
clearcuts
followed
by
herbicide
treatment,
although
some
instantaneous
temperature
increases
approached
10oC.

To
summarize,
the
literature
from
a
variety
of
geographic
locations
suggests
that
increases
to
mean
temperatures
of
3­
6oC,
and
to
maximum
temperatures
of
3­
8oC,
have
been
common.
Therefore,
the
SSTEMP
model
predictions
for
this
hypothetical
stream
are
reasonable,
perhaps
even
low.
They
may
be
low
because
some
reports
were
made
prior
to
effective
riparian
management.
I
believe
the
model
predictions
are
valuable,
however,
not
because
they
may
approximate
the
cumulative
effect
per
se,
but
because
they
illustrate
the
relative
magnitude
of
change
caused
by
the
physical
variables
that
govern
water
temperature.
In
particular,
altered
stream
width,
when
it
occurs,
may
account
for
a
significant
proportion
of
increases
to
maximum
temperature.
Therefore,
BMPs
devoted
to
mitigating
increases
in
stream
width
could
be
expected
to
have
a
relatively
large
influence
on
stream
temperatures.

Has
the
strict
definition
of
"
cumulative
effects"
been
met
by
this
analysis?
I
fear
that
the
answer
is
no.
Concentration
on
the
physical
dimension
ignores
the
far
more
complex
biological
arena
(
Johnson
and
Jones,
in
press).
Could
thermal
increases
be
a
barrier
to
up­
or
downstream
migration
of
salmonids,
growth
rates
or
stress
(
Lynch
et
al.,
1984)?
Would
benthic
food
production
be
adversely
affected
in
altered
habitats
(
Duncan
et
al.,
1989)?
This
analysis
alone
cannot
answer
those
questions.
However,
first
principles
models
like
SNTEMP
and
SSTEMP
are
good
integration
tools
that
can
capture
many
important
first­
order
linkages
between
land
use
changes
and
stream
temperature
(
e.
g.,
shading).
They
can
also
be
used
hypothetically
to
explore
second­
order
cumulative
effects,
although
they
can
never
be
conclusive.
In
this
mode,
such
models
are
useful
in
five
broad
categories
of
application:

1.
Understanding:
What
are
the
important
physical
processes?;
2.
Communication:
How
does
one
visualize
and
communicate
cumulative
effects
to
diverse
audiences?;
3.
Sensitivity
analysis:
Which
variables
most
warrant
accurate
measurement
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Stream
Temperature
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September
2002)

at
a
site?;
4.
Incremental
quantification:
How
much
change
in
water
temperature
might
one
expect
given
single
or
cumulative
changes
in
input
variables
("
whatif
analysis)?;
and
5.
Coherence
of
monitoring
results:
Does
it
all
make
sense?

It
is
encouraging
that
stringent
timber
management
BMPs
that
limit
the
size
and
contiguity
of
clearcut
parcels
may
be
reducing
the
cumulative
effects
of
harvest
on
stream
temperatures.
However,
strict
BMPs
do
not
appear
to
be
widespread
(
Young,
2000).
Model
applications
such
as
the
one
presented
here
may
be
useful
in
continuing
to
address
these
and
similar
problems
such
as
the
cumulative
effects
of
agricultural
development
or
urbanization.

Acknowledgements
This
paper
grew
out
of
an
informal
presentation
that
I
gave
at
the
Stream
Temperature
Monitoring
and
Assessment
workshop
sponsored
by
the
Forest
Science
Project
at
Humboldt
State
University,
January
1998,
in
Sacramento,
California.
I
am
indebted
to
Zack
Bowen,
Blair
Hanna,
Bob
Milhous,
Kent
Smith,
and
Paul
Zedonis
for
providing
many
constructive
comments
on
earlier
drafts.
Additional
comments
from
Bob
Beschta,
Sherri
Johnson,
and
three
anonymous
reviewers
significantly
improved
the
final
manuscript.

References
Amaranthus,
A.,
H.
Jubas,
and
D.
Arthur.
1989.
Stream
shading,
summer
streamflow
and
maximum
water
temperature
following
intense
wildfire
in
headwater
streams.
Pages
75­
78
In
General
Technical
Report
PSW­
109,
Proceedings
of
the
Symposium
on
Fire
and
Watershed
Management,
October
26­
28
1988,
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CA.
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Forest
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Pacific
Southwest
Forest
and
Range
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Berkeley,
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Anderson,
H.
W.
1973.
The
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temperature:
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Land
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DNR
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J.
M.
1989.
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139
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Bartholow,
J.
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usgs.
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features_
0902/
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html
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Stream
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(
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September
2002)

Bartholow,
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M.
1993.
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M.,
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C.
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Stalnaker,
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1993.
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D.
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W.
D.
Taylor,
and
R.
M.
Biette.
1985.
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riparian
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American
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364­
378.

Beschta,
R.
L.
1991.
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management
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northwestern
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States:
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Stewart
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<
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gov>
U.
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http://
smig.
usgs.
gov/
SMIG/
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0902/
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