83
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
fall­
spawning
salmonids
and
has
been
documented
for
chinook
of
the
Pacific
Northwest
(
Groves
and
Chandler
1999,
Lindsay
et
al.
1986).

Although
spawning
for
bull
trout
may
begin
as
early
as
mid­
August,
spawning
activity
is
reported
to
be
initiated
when
water
temperatures
begin
to
fall
to
48.2
°
F
(
9
°
C)
or
lower
(
McPhail
and
Murray
1979,
Shepard
et
al.
1982,
Kraemer
1994,
Brenkemen
1998).
Both
the
coastal
rainbow
and
the
redband
trout
spawn
in
the
spring,
stimulated
by
rising
water
temperatures.
Behnke
(
1992)
suggested
that
along
the
Pacific
coast
a
water
temperature
of
about
37.4­
42.8
°
F
(
3­
6
°
C)
may
initiate
some
spawning
activity,
but
spawning
does
not
usually
occur
until
temperatures
reach
42.8­
48.2
°
F
(
6­
9
°
C).
Although
this
spawning
activity
would
typically
occur
from
late
December
through
April,
in
some
very
cold
headwater
streams
local
temperatures
may
delay
spawning
until
July
or
August
for
some
stocks.
Beschta
et
al.
(
1987)
suggested
that
rainbow
trout
spawn
between
35.9
and
68
°
F
(
2.2
and
20
°
C),
Bell
(
1986)
set
the
range
at
35.9­
66
°
F
(
2.2­
18.9
°
C),
and
Piper
et
al.
(
1982)
concluded
the
range
was
50­
55
°
F
(
10­
12.8
°
C).

Conclusions
for
spawning.
Egg
mortality,
alevin
development
linked
to
thermal
exposure
of
eggs
in
ripe
females
or
newly
deposited
in
gravel,
and
egg
maturation
are
negatively
affected
by
exposure
to
temperatures
above
approximately
54.5­
57.2
°
F
(
12.5­
14
°
C).
Therefore,
a
spawning
temperature
range
of
42­
55
°
F
(
5.6­
12.8
°
C)
(
maximum)
appears
to
be
a
reasonable
recommendation
for
Pacific
salmon,
unless
colder
thermal
regimes
are
natural
in
any
tributary.

SUPPORTING
DISCUSSION
AND
LITERATURE
 
LETHAL
EFFECTS
What
is
the
utility
of
UILT
data
and
how
has
it
been
applied?

Upper
incipient
lethal
temperature
data
were
tabulated
in
NAS
(
1972)
for
juveniles
and
adults
of
many
fish
species.
UILT
values
for
many
salmonid
species
have
since
been
added
to
the
literature;
a
cross­
section
is
summarized
in
Table
4,
extracted
from
McCullough
(
1999).
The
UILT
values
correspond
to
the
highest
acclimation
temperatures,
and
consequently,
are
very
similar
to
UUILT
values.
Given
prior
acclimation
to
temperatures
lower
than
listed
in
the
table,
however,
the
UILT
values
would
likely
be
lower.
This
means
that
in
the
field,
mortality
can
be
induced
at
temperatures
significantly
lower
than
UUILT
levels.

Studies
of
the
effect
of
elevated
water
temperature
on
survival
of
a
wide
variety
of
salmonids
using
transfer
to
high
constant
temperature
(
UILT
experiments)
show
much
consistency
among
species.
In
those
tests
in
which
acclimation
temperature
was
68
°
F
(
20
°
C)
and
the
UILT
was
approximately
equal
to
the
UUILT,
UILT
values
found
ranged
from
73.4
to
80.6
°
F
(
23­
27
°
C).
Redband
trout
tend
to
be
the
most
heat
resistant
of
the
salmonids;
UILT
values
for
all
other
species
ranged
from
73.4
to
78.8
°
F
(
23­
26
°
C).

NAS
(
1972)
recommended
that
for
any
acclimation
temperature,
short
­
term
exposure
be
limited
to
UILT
(
factor
of
safety,
3.6
°
F
[
2
°
C]).
This
assumes
that
at
the
UILT
temperature,
50%
of
the
population
would
die
within
the
test
period
(
at
least
1,000
min),
but
if
the
temperature
is
reduced
by
3.6
°
F
(
2
°
C),
no
mortalities
would
occur
in
this
time
period.
Although
this
assumption
may
generally
be
valid,
it
also
relies
on
no
incidence
of
disease
or
other
sublethal
effects.
When
84
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
this
method
was
proposed,
cumulative
effects
of
repeat
exposure
to
high
temperatures
were
not
well
known
(
see
DeHart
1975,
Golden
1975,
Golden
1976,
Golden
and
Schreck
1978).

Although
temperatures
of
73.4­
78.8
°
F
(
23­
26
°
C)
are
generally
considered
the
UUILT
for
most
salmonids,
UILT
values
are
typically
1.8­
3.6
°
F
(
1­
2
°
C)
less
than
UUILT.
The
UILT
values
are
incipient
lethal
temperatures
that
correspond
to
acclimation
temperatures
lower
than
the
UUILT.
Because
we
can
never
assume
that
fish
in
the
field
will
be
acclimated
to
the
highest
acclimation
temperature,
the
more
appropriate
lethal
temperature
in
the
field
may
be
up
t
o
3.6
°
F
(
2
°
C)
less
than
UUILT.
The
factor
of
safety
would
then
have
to
be
applied
t
o
this
value,
and
even
then
the
additional
sublethal
or
cumulative
lethal
concerns
remain.

The
73.4­
78.8
°
F
(
23­
26
°
C)
UUILT
range
for
salmonids
applies
to
the
juvenile
life
stage.
Although
information
on
salmon
adults
is
much
more
limited,
it
indicates
that
adults
are
far
more
sensitive
than
juveniles
to
high
temperatures.
Becker
(
1973)
identified
the
thermal
tolerance
of
chinook
jacks
to
be
69.8­
71.6
°
F
(
21
°
­
22
°
C)
on
the
basis
of
a
168
h
TLM
test.
Coutant
(
1970)
identified
the
incipient
lethal
temperature
for
chinook
jacks
as
71.6
°
F
(
22
°
C)
with
prior
acclimation
to
66.2
°
F
(
19
°
C)
(
estimated
from
ambient
river
temperatures).
Columbia
River
steelhead,
acclimated
to
a
river
temperature
of
66.2
°
F
(
19
°
C)
had
a
lethal
threshold
of
69.8
°
F
(
21
°
C)
(
Coutant
1970).
These
lethal
limits
are
9.9
°
F
(
5.5
°
C)
lower
than
for
juvenile
rainbow
acclimated
to
64.4
°
F
(
18
°
C)
(
Alabaster
and
Welcomme
1962,
as
cited
by
Coutant
1972).

Servizi
and
Jensen
(
1977)
found
that
the
geometric
mean
survival
times
(
GMST)
for
adult
sockeye
were
less
than
for
juveniles.
They
also
reported
that
the
median
survival
times
(
MST)
for
adult
coho
found
by
Coutant
(
1969)
were
similar
to
those
of
sockeye
over
the
exposure
range
80.6­
86
°
F
(
27­
30
°
C).
The
GMST
for
adult
sockeye
was
1,000
min
at
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
with
acclimation
at
60.4­
64.9
°
F
(
15.8­
18.3
°
C).
Survival
time
at
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C)
was
only
100
min.
Time
to
loss
of
equilibrium
and
survival
time
of
adults
were
plotted
vs.
exposure
temperature
on
the
same
graph.
The
curve
for
loss
of
equilibrium
was
considerably
lower
than
the
time­
to­
death
curve.
For
this
reason,
Servizi
and
Jensen
(
1977)
considered
the
loss
of
equilibrium
temperature
more
ecologically
significant.
Furthermore,
because
sockeye
exposed
to
temperatures
of
approximately
64.4­
69.8
°
F
(
18­
21
°
C)
become
highly
susceptible
to
Flexibacter
columnaris,
researchers
took
this
temperature
range
as
a
greater
thermal
threat
to
continued
sto
ck
survival.

Although
UUILT
or
UILT
temperatures
are
well
known
and
consistent
for
the
various
salmonids,
they
are
probably
not
useful
in
setting
temperature
standards.
Certainly
they
represent
the
upper
limits
to
tolerance,
but
salmonids
in
a
stream
system
tend
to
be
restricted
to
maximum
temperatures
that
are
3.6­
7.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C)
lower
than
UILT
values.
In
general,
a
maximum
temperature
of
71.6­
75.2
°
F
(
22­
24
°
C)
represents
the
normal
upper
temperature
limit
in
the
field
(
see
McCullough
1999).
As
this
limit
is
approached,
juvenile
density
declines
t
o
zero.
Using
the
presence/
absence
threshold
as
a
temperature
standard
for
salmon
habitat
can
only
be
done
when
density
is
at
or
near
zero.

Although
the
UILT
has
limited
value
in
establishing
the
temperature
standard
itself,
the
a
and
b
coefficients
for
a
given
acclimation
temperature
are
useful
in
estimating
exposure
times
that
will
result
in
50%
mortality.
In
addition,
NAS
(
1972)
recommended
(
MWAT)
as
an
index
to
tolerable
prolonged
exposures.
This
index
was
estimated
as
either:
85
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
[(
opt.
temp.
+
zng
temp.)/
2],

where
the
zng
or
zero
net
growth
temperature
is
that
temperature
which
results
in
zero
net
growth
of
a
population
(
i.
e.,
subt
racting
tissue
lost
as
population
mortality
from
that
added
in
growth)

or
opt.
temp.
+
(
UILT
!
opt.
temp)/
3.

Each
formula
is
based
o
n
the
assumption
that
adequate
growth
rates
can
be
maintained
if
the
weekly
average
maximum
temperature
falls
between
the
optimum
and
the
UILT
or
the
zero
net
growth
temperature.
However,
the
decline
in
growth
rate
can
be
very
steep
if
temperature
is
above
the
optimum.
Consequently,
limiting
reductions
in
growth
rates
to,
for
example,
80%
of
maximum
levels
can
lead
to
much
greater
reductions
in
growth,
given
errors
estimating
the
relationship
or
managing
temperature
in
a
watershed.

Are
there
potential
weaknesses
in
reliance
on
MWAT?

Hokanson
et
al.
(
1977)
advised
caution
in
using
short­
term
exposure
experiments
to
calculate
long­
term
exposures,
such
as
with
MWAT.
They
reported
for
O.
mykiss
that,
given
a
physiological
optimum
of
60.8­
64.4
°
F
(
16­
18
°
C)
and
a
UILT
of
78
°
F
(
25.6
°
C)
(
at
60.8
°
F
[
16
°
C]
acclimation),
one
would
calculate
an
MWAT
of
66.2
°
F
(
19
°
C)
and
a
maximum
temperature
(
applying
the
2
°
C
safety
factor
of
Coutant
1972)
of
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
for
short­
term
exposure.
Measurement
of
rainbow
trout
growth
showed
that
at
a
fluct
uating
temperature
of
71.6
±
6.8
°
F
(
22
±
3.8
°
C)
specific
growth
rate
was
zero.
Under
this
temperature
regime
mortality
rate
was
42.8%/
d
during
the
first
7
d.
For
experiments
within
the
optimum
range
(
59.9­
63.1
°
F
[
15.5
°
C­
17.3
°
C]
for
a
fluct
uating
regime),
average
specific
mort
ality
was
0.36%/
d.
Combining
data
on
specific
growth
and
mortality
rates,
the
authors
were
able
to
predict
yield
for
a
hypothetical
population
under
t
he
temperature
regimes.
A
rainbow
trout
population
would
exhibit
zero
increase
over
a
40­
d
period
(
maintenance)
at
a
constant
temperature
of
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C)
and
a
fluctuating
temperature
with
a
mean
of
69.8
±
6.8
°
F
(
21
±
3.8
°
C)
because
growth
balances
mortality.
Several
sources
report
temperatures
of
69.8­
73.4
°
(
21­
23
°
C)
as
the
upper
limit
of
rainbow
trout
distribution
in
the
field
(
Hokanson
et
al.
1977).
Numerous
authors
have
reported
upper
limits
to
salmonid
distribution
as
approximately
71.6­
75.2
°
F
(
22­
24
°
C).

With
this
laboratory
information
and
corroborating
field
information,
Hokanson
et
al.
(
1977)
recommended
a
mean
weekly
temperature
of
62.6
±
3.6
°
F
(
17
±
2
°
C)
for
rainbow
trout
so
that
maximum
yield
is
not
reduced
more
than
27%
under
normal
fluctuating
temperature
regimes.
Production
has
been
shown
to
be
substantially
reduced
even
just
above
the
physiological
optimum.
This
paper
has
great
significance.
It
was
published
5
years
after
the
National
Academy
of
Sciences
recommended
the
use
of
MWAT
to
establish
prolonged
exposure
temperatures.
The
NAS
acknowledged
that
growth
rate
should
be
expressed
as
net
biomass
gain
or
net
growth.
Yield
is
that
portion
o
f
the
population
available
to
humans;
t
he
remainder
is
lost
as
mortality,
which
can
be
substantial
if
temperatures
are
high.
Also,
if
temperatures
are
high,
much
of
the
energy
assimilated
from
food
is
lost
as
excessive
metabolism.
If
the
MWAT
is
66.2
°
F
(
19
°
C),
86
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
and
yield
is
reduced
27%
from
maximum,
even
at
a
mean
weekly
temperature
of
62.6
±
3.6
°
F
(
17
±
2
°
C)
it
is
obvious
that
MWAT
is
not
protective.

In
addition
to
concern
for
the
inadequacy
of
the
MWAT,
this
criterion
also
covered
reproduction
and
development
needs
of
salmonids.
A
quo
te
from
NAS
(
1972)
is
useful:

Uniform
elevations
of
temperature
by
a
few
degrees
during
the
spawning
period,
while
maintaining
short­
term
temperature
cycles
and
seasonal
thermal
patterns,
appear
to
have
little
overall
effect
on
the
reproductive
cycle
of
resident
aquatic
species,
other
than
to
advance
the
timing
for
spring
spawners
or
delay
it
for
fall
spawners.
Such
shifts
are
often
seen
in
nature,
although
no
quantitative
measurements
of
reproductive
success
have
been
made
in
this
connection.

However,
significant
recent
research
has
shown
that
calculated
MWAT
temperatures
(
e.
g.,
66.2
°
F
(
19
°
C)
for
rainbow
trout)
result
in
damage
to
gametes
during
reproductive
stages.
On
the
basis
of
these
technical
findings,
any
temperature
criterion
that
can
result
in
a
27%
reduction
in
biomass
and
affect
gamete
viability
must
be
questioned.

How
can
UILT
data
be
evaluated
against
UUILT
data?

Temperatures
as
low
as
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C)
have
been
found
to
produce
50%
mortality
(
LT50)
over
the
course
of
a
week
in
rainbow
trout
acclimated
to
very
cold
(
39.2
°
F
[
4
°
C])
waters
(
Sonski
1982,
Threader
and
Houston
1983
as
cited
in
Taylor
and
Barton
1992),
with
the
lethal
temperature
rising
to
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
in
moderately
cold­
water­
acclimated
42.8­
51.8
°
F
(
6­
11
°
C)
fish
(
Black
1953,
Stauffer
et
al.
1984,
Bidgood
1980
as
cited
in
Taylor
and
Barton
1992).
However,
at
most
acclimatio
n
temperatures
likely
to
be
encountered
during
the
spring
through
fall
seasons
(
53.6­
68
°
F
[
12­
20
°
C]),
lethal
levels
are
consistently
in
the
range
of
77­
78.8
°
F
(
25­
26
°
C)
(
Bidgood
and
Berst
1969,
Hokanson
et
al.
1977).
With
cautious
acclimation
to
temperatures
in
the
range
of
73.4­
75.2
°
F
(
23­
24
°
C),
rainbow
trout
may
not
experience
LT50
effects
until
a
week
at
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C)
(
Charlon
et
al.
1970
as
cited
in
Grande
and
Anderson
1991).
Even
with
careful
acclimatio
n,
77
°
F
(
27
°
C)
results
in
high
or
complete
mortality
in
less
than
24
hours
(
Charlon
et
al.
1970),
and
temperatures
of
84.2­
86
°
F
(
29­
30
°
C)
result
in
50%
mortality
in
1­
2
hours
(
Kaya
1978,
Craigie
1963,
Alabaster
and
Welcomme
1962
as
cited
in
Taylor
and
Barton
1992).

How
can
prolonged
exposure
to
cyclic
temperatures
be
evaluated?

Under
fluctuating
temperature
test
conditions,
rainbow
trout
have
experienced
50%
mortality
in
a
week
of
daily
cycles
from
69.8
to
77
°
F
(
21­
27
°
C)
(
Lee
1980).
Sonski
(
1983),
however,
was
able
to
culture
rainbow
trout
in
ponds
that
reached
84
°
F
(
28.9
°
C),
and
Chandrasekaran
and
Subb
Rao
(
1979)
reported
that
rainbow
trout
were
largely
able
to
survive
in
rearing
ponds
with
months
of
daily
maximum
temperatures
of
78.8­
84.2
°
F
(
26­
29
°
C).

It
seems
important,
given
the
low
lethal
levels
reported
in
the
literature,
to
evaluate
whether
individual
research
results
would
unduly
influence
the
temperature
recommendations.
In
Figures
3
and
4,
lethality
data
for
salmon
and
char
species
(
extracted
from
the
summary
by
Hicks
2000)
are
combined
and
examined
in
two
different
ways
to
develop
a
stronger
basis
for
regional
daily
87
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
maximum
criteria.

In
Figure
3,
all
of
the
available
7­
d
LT50
data
(
50%
of
test
organisms
die
over
a
7­
d
constant
exposure
test)
for
char
and
salmonids
are
presented
by
acclimation
temperature.
This
distribution
is
then
used
to
make
criteria
recommendations
for
acclimation
temperatures.
At
low
acclimation
temperatures,
constant
exposure
to
just
above
72.5
°
F
(
22.5
°
C)
would
be
expected
to
result
in
50%
mortality
over
a
week.
Reducing
this
value
to
a
level
where
no
lethality
would
be
expected
to
any
adults
or
juveniles
would
result
in
a
daily
maximum
not
to
exceed
68.9
°
F
(
20.5
°
C).

Figure
4
considers
resistance
against
short
exposures
to
high
temperatures,
as
might
occur
in
a
natural
fluctuating
stream
environment.
Resistance
time
is
very
important
to
estimating
potential
lethality;
it
is
the
time
spent
above
a
lethal
threshold
that
determines
whether
short­
term
lethal
effects
will
occur.
Different
peak
temperatures
(
e.
g.,
71.6,
75.2,
80.6,
and
86
°
F
[
22,
24,
27,
and
30
°
C]),
may
be
lethal
to
an
organism,
but
the
organism
can
likely
withstand
these
temperatures
for
variable
lengths
of
time.
A
populat
ion
of
fish
may
be
able
to
withstand
69.8
°
F
(
21
°
C)
for
7
d
of
constant
exposure
without
any
mortality,
but
have
50%
of
the
population
die
after
2
d
at
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C).
At
80.6
°
F
(
27
°
C),
50%
mortality
may
occur
after
less
than
2
h
of
exposure,
and
at
86
°
F
(
30
°
C)
complete
mortality
may
occur
in
just
a
few
minutes.

In
considering
the
effect
o
f
repeat
ed
hot
days,
it
is
important
to
incorporate
cumulative
effects.
DeHart
(
1975)
found
that
lethal
effects
depend
on
the
area
of
the
temperature
time
curve
that
is
above
a
fish's
UILT.
Thermal
effects
accumulate
over
several
days
when
the
daily
temperature
cycle
fluctuates
above
the
UILT,
and
the
time
above
the
UILT
influences
the
thermal
resistance
time
regardless
of
any
lower
test
temperatures.
In
other
words,
the
ability
of
a
fish
to
resist
a
single
day's
exposure
to
a
lethal
temperature
may
not
be
sufficient,
and
15
minutes
spent
at
7.2
°
F
(
4
°
C)
over
the
UILT
is
of
more
consequence
than
the
same
time
spent
at
3.6
°
F
(
2
°
C)
over
the
UILT.

In
Figure
3,
LT50
results
are
plotted
for
durations
of
1
hour
or
less.
At
acclimation
levels
less
than
53.6
°
F
(
12
°
C),
50%
mortality
can
be
expected
at
77
°
F
(
25
°
C)
with
a
1­
h
exposure,
or
at
75.5
°
F
(
24.2
°
C)
with
a
2­
h
exposure.
Reducing
these
values
to
levels
where
no
lethality
would
be
expected
would
result
in
temperatures
not
exceeding
73.4
or
71.6
°
F
(
23
or
22
°
C),
respectively.
Because
adults
are
considered
more
sensitive
than
juveniles
(
all
of
the
1­
h
or
less
data
were
for
juvenile
fish),
and
the
effects
of
lethal
exposures
are
cumulative,
we
can
assume
that
death
may
occur
with
repeated
exposure
to
daily
maximum
temperatures
greater
than
69.8­
71.6
°
F
(
21­
22
°
C).
This
estimate
is
very
similar
to
the
results
(
68.9­
70
°
F
[
20.5­
21.1
°
C])
at
low
acclimation
temperatures
in
the
approach
shown
in
Figure
2.

Acclimation
Temperature
°
F
(
°
C)
Combined
LT50
for
all
Salmonids
Esti
mated
LT1
with
NAS
Adjustment
41
(
5)
72.46
(
22.48)
68.9
(
20.5)

50
(
10)
73.56
(
23.09)
70
(
21.1)

39
(
15)
74.66
(
23.7)
71.06
(
21.7)
88
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
68
(
20)
75.75
(
24.31)
72.14
(
22.3)

Figure
3.
Combined
lethality
data
for
all
salmonid
species
(
based
on
7­
d
LT50
constant
temperature
exposure
test
results).

SUPPORTING
DISCUSSION
AND
LITERATURE
 
SUBLETHAL
AND
LETHAL
EFFECTS
FOR
NATIVE
CHAR,
REDBAND
TROUT,
AND
CUTTHROAT
TROUT
SPECIES
What
are
the
thermal
requirements
of
bull
trout
and
Dolly
Varden?

Incubation.
For
bull
trout,
McPhail
and
Murray
(
1979)
compared
egg
survival
and
water
temperature
and
reported
the
highest
egg
survival
to
hatching
(
80­
95%)
in
water
temperatures
of
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C).
Shortest
hatch,
largest
alevins,
and
largest
hatching
fry
were
also
associated
with
these
low
temperatures
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C).

Research
suggesting
that
spawning
does
not
peak
until
temperatures
fall
to
below
44.6
°
F
(
7
°
C)
is
consistent
with
the
results
o
f
studies
determining
temperatures
necessary
for
the
89
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
successful
incubation
of
char
eggs.
These
studies
show
that
char
require
temperatures
below
42.8
°
F
(
6
°
C)
to
achieve
optimal
egg
survival
(
Buchanan
and
Gregory
1997).
It
is
generally
agreed
that
poor
survival
occurs
at
temperatures
above
44.6­
46.4
°
F
(
7­
8
°
C).
Under
t
est
conditions
where
temperatures
were
held
constant,
46.4­
50
°
F
(
8­
10
°
C)
resulted
in
very
poor
survival
of
eggs
(
0%­
20%)
in
tests
by
McPhail
and
Murray
(
1979),
and
test
temperatures
in
the
range
of
44.6­
51.8
°
F
(
7­
11
°
C)
were
reported
Time
to
LT50
Temperature
(
C)
1
sec
34.32
30
sec
30.42
1
min
29.62
60
min
24.99
120
min
24.2
Figure
4.
Instantaneous
mortality
for
char
and
salmon
combined
(
based
on
LT50
data
for
exposures
of
less
than
1
hour
and
acclimation
to
<
12C).

to
result
in
poor
survival
in
hatchery
culture
by
Brown
(
1985).
McPhail
and
Murray
(
1979)
found
a
temperature
of
42.8
°
F
(
6
°
C)
to
produce
variable
survival
rates
(
60%­
90%),
and
the
range
of
90
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C)
produced
the
best
survival
(
80%­
95%).
In
studies
on
the
related
species
of
Arctic
char,
Humpesch
(
1985)
reported
optimal
incubation
to
occur
at
41
°
F
(
5
°
C).

In
conclusion,
for
bull
trout,
temperatures
falling
to
48.2
°
F
(
9
°
C)
and
below
may
initiate
spawning,
but
colder
temperatures
during
incubation
and
yolk
absorption
produce
the
largest
size
and
greatest
number
of
fry
(
McPhail
and
Murray
1979).
Although
spawning
tends
to
peak
at
44.6
°
F
(
7
°
C),
water
temperatures
continue
to
decline
as
the
spawning
season
progresses
and
drop
toward
the
optimum
incubation
temperatures
of
35.6­
42.8
°
F
(
2­
6
°
C).
Bull
trout
tend
to
select
redds
directly
adjacent
to
or
below
areas
of
groundwater
upwelling,
resulting
in
relatively
constant
cold
water
temperatures
for
egg
incubation
with
little
diel
fluctuation
(
Baxter
and
Hauer
2000).

Growth.
In
a
laboratory
study
by
McMahon
et
al.
(
1999),
limited
rations
lowered
the
optimal
temperature
for
growth.
For
satiation­
fed
and
66%
of
satiation­
fed
juvenile
bull
trout,
optimum
growth
occurred
at
a
temperature
range
of
53.6­
60.8
°
F
(
12­
16
°
C).
When
energy
availability
was
low
(
one­
third
satiation­
fed
fish),
maximum
growth
occurred
at
lower
temperatures
(
46.4­
53.6
°
F
[
8­
12
°
C]).
In
a
related
species,
Arctic
char,
the
upper
thermal
limits
to
both
feeding
and
growth
were
70.7­
71.2
°
F
(
21.5­
21.8
°
C)
(
Thyrel
et
al.
1999).

In
a
study
analyzing
the
temperature
effects
on
bull
trout
distribution
in
581
sites,
Rieman
and
Chandler
(
1999)
found
that
juvenile/
small
bull
trout
appeared
most
likely
to
occur
at
summer­
mean
temperatures
of
42.8­
48.2
°
F
(
6­
9
°
C)
or
single
maximums
of
51.8­
57.2
°
F
(
11­
14
°
C).
When
given
a
choice
of
temperatures
from
46.4
to
59
°
F
(
8­
15
°
C)
in
a
large
plunge
pool,
juvenile
bull
trout
showed
a
clear
preference
for
the
coldest
water
available
(
6.4­
48.2
°
F
[
8­
9
°
C])
(
Bonneau
and
Scarnecchia
1996).

Migration.
Upstream
spring
migration
of
adult
bull
trout
may
be
related
to
water
temperatures
and
flows.
In
Rapid
River,
Idaho,
a
review
of
trap
counts
and
temperature
for
1985
through
1992
reported
a
general
trend
of
increasing
upstream
bull
trout
counts
as
water
temperatures
reached
50
°
F
(
10
°
C)
(
Elle
et
al.
1994).
McPhail
and
Murray
(
1979)
found
peak
upstream
movement
coincided
with
water
temperatures
of
50­
53.6
°
F
(
10­
12
°
C).

Spawning.
Bull
trout
spawning
areas
are
often
associated
with
cold­
water
springs,
groundwater
infiltration,
and
the
co
ldest
st
reams
in
a
given
watershed
(
Pratt
1992,
Rieman
and
McIntyre
1993,
Rieman
et
al.
1997).
Bull
trout
spawning
is
initiated
as
temperatures
drop
to
48.2
°
F
(
9
°
C)
or
lower,
and
egg
mortality
is
lowest
and
alevin
development
is
strongest
at
colder
temperatures
(
McPhail
and
Murray
1979).
In
Indian
Creek,
tributary
to
the
Yakima
River,
bull
trout
spawning
activity
peaked
when
stream
temperatures
were
42.8­
46.4
°
F
(
6­
8
°
C)
(
James
and
Sexauer
1994).
In
the
North
Fork
Skokomish
River,
bull
trout
spawned
in
October
after
water
temperatures
dropped
below
43.7
°
F
(
6.5
°
C)
(
Brenkman
1998).
Mean
daily
river
temperatures
ranged
from
38.3
to
45.5
°
F
(
3.5­
7.5
°
C)
during
the
remainder
of
the
spawning
period.
This
does
not
differ
significantly
from
descriptions
of
temperatures
initiat
ing
bull
trout
spawning
in
Montana
(
Shepard
et
al.
1982),
Oregon
(
Ratliffe
1992),
or
Washington
(
Kraemer
1994).

Although
spawning
for
bull
trout
may
begin
as
early
as
mid­
August,
spawning
activity
is
reported
to
be
initiated
when
water
temperatures
begin
to
decrease
and
fall
to
48.2
°
F
(
9
°
C)
or
91
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
lower
and
does
not
peak
until
temperatures
fall
below
44.6
°
F
(
7
°
C)
(
McPhail
and
Murray
1979,
Shepard
et
al.
1982,
Kraemer
1994,
Brenkemen
1998).
Kraemer
(
1994)
noted
that
when
stream
temperatures
rise
to
above
46.4
°
F
(
8
°
C)
once
spawning
has
been
initiated,
spawning
usually
stops
or
slows.

Bull
trout
require
a
narrow
range
of
cold
temperatures
to
rear
and
reproduce
and
may
thrive
in
waters
too
cold
for
other
salmonid
species
(
Balon
1980).
McPhail
and
Murray
(
1979)
reported
that
0%­
20%,
60%­
90%,
and
80%­
95%
of
bull
trout
eggs
from
a
British
Columbia
river
survived
to
hatching
at
water
temperatures
of
46.4­
50,
42.8,
and
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
8­
10,
6,
and
2­
4
°
C),
respectively.
In
Montana,
Weaver
and
White
(
1985)
found
that
39.2­
42.8
°
F
(
4­
6
°
C)
was
needed
for
bull
trout
egg
development.
Buchanan
and
Gregory
(
1997)
defined
a
range
o
f
33.8­
42.8
°
F
(
1­
6
°
C)
that
would
meet
bull
trout
egg
incubation
requirements
in
Oregon.

Although
data
are
not
shown
directly
for
char
species,
other
salmonids
are
known
to
undergo
some
conditioning
in
the
early
stage
of
incubation
that
allows
excellent
survival
at
very
low
temperatures.
Where
conditioning
does
not
occur,
and
t
he
eggs
are
incubated
at
an
early
stage
at
very
low
temperatures,
significant
reductions
in
survival
have
been
noted
(
Murray
and
Beacham
1986,
Seymour
1956).
Thus
even
if
35.6
°
F
(
2
°
C)
is
suboptimal
at
a
constant
incubation
temperature,
natural
seasonal
declines
in
temperature
to
35.6
°
F
(
2
°
C)
in
the
incubation
period
may
not
decrease
survival.
This
assumption
is
supported
by
work
showing
that
newly
hatched
Arctic
char
(
Salvelinus
alpinus)
alevins
are
tolerant
of
temperatures
near
32
°
F
(
0
°
C)
(
Baroudy
and
Elliott
1994)
and
that
the
lower
limit
for
hatching
in
Arctic
char
is
less
than
33.8
°
F
(
1
°
C).

On
the
basis
of
the
information
examined,
the
initiation
of
spawning
behavior
and
in
vivo
egg
development
will
be
fully
supported
by
keeping
maximum
temperatures
in
the
spawning
areas
below
44.6­
46.4
°
F
(
7­
8
°
C)
during
the
spawning
season.
Given
that
excellent
survival
has
been
noted
in
test
s
at
42.8
and
43.7
°
F
(
6
and
6.5
°
C),
that
some
increased
problems
with
disease
may
be
initiated
at
the
higher
end
of
this
range,
and
that
a
variety
of
impacts
to
spawning
have
been
noted
above
44.6
°
F
(
7
°
C),
it
appears
that
constant
or
acclimation
temperatures
in
the
range
of
37.4­
42.8
°
F
(
3­
6
°
C)
are
optimal
for
the
incubation
of
char.
Because
char
are
highly
resistant
to
low
temperatures
and
low
temperatures
discourage
disease
organisms,
water
temperatures
that
swiftly
decline
to
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C)
as
the
incubation
season
progresses
appear
highly
favorable.

What
are
the
therm
al
requirem
ents
for
Lahontan
cutthroat
tro
ut?

Growth.
Laboratory
studies
of
growth
conducted
at
constant
temperatures
showed
that
growth
remained
the
same
at
temperatures
of
55.4,
68,
and
71.6
°
F
(
13,
20,
and
22
°
C)
(
Dickerson
et
al.
1999,
as
cited
in
Dunham
1999).
Growth
was
significantly
reduced
at
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C).
Tests
done
under
a
fluctuating
temperature
regime
of
68­
78.8
°
F
(
20­
26
°
C)
with
a
daily
mean
of
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C)
for
1
wk
showed
growth
rates
were
lower
under
this
temperature
regime
than
for
fish
exposed
to
constant
temperatures
of
55
and
68
°
F
(
13
and
20
°
C).
The
growth
rates
under
the
fluctuating
regime
were
similar
to
growth
rates
of
fish
held
at
a
constant
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C).

Thermal
stress
 
heat
shock
proteins.
Lahontan
cutthroat
trout
begin
to
produce
heat
shock
proteins
immediately
when
exposed
to
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C)
water
temperature.
Fish
exposed
to
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
water
temperature
began
to
produce
heat
shock
proteins
within
24
h.
Fish
exposed
92
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
to
71.6
°
F
(
22
°
C)
water
temperature
did
not
produce
heat
shock
proteins,
even
after
5
d
of
exposure.

Occurrence.
Dunham
(
1999)
found
that
the
distribution
limit
of
most
Lahontan
populations
corresponded
closely
to
a
maximum
summer
water
temperature
of
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C).
The
Willow
Creek
population
in
Oregon
occurred
in
water
with
daily
maximum
temperatures
up
to
83
°
F
(
28.4
°
C).

Lethal
effects.
It
has
often
been
assumed
that
Lahontan
cutthroat
trout
have
a
greater
tolerance
for
warm
water
than
other
salmonids
because
of
their
geographic
distribution
in
warm
climates.
Although
there
are
not
abundant
studies
of
Lahontan
cutthroat
thermal
requirements,
good
evidence
indicates
that
this
species
is
comparable
to
other
salmon
and
trout
in
its
response
to
warm
water.

Critical
thermal
maximum
(
CTM)
tests
of
thermal
resistance
were
conducted
on
two
strains
of
Lahontan
cutthroat
t
rout
by
Vigg
and
Koch
(
1980).
The
two
strains
tested
were
Marble
Bluff
and
the
Summit
Lake
strain
found
in
Pyramid
Lake.
The
test
was
designed
to
determine
the
effect
of
alkalinity
on
CTM
values.
In
both
strains
it
was
found
that
as
alkalinity
increased
from
69
to
1,487
mg/
L,
the
CTM
decreased.
Average
CTM
values
determined
for
the
death
(
D)
temperature
endpoint
were
approximately
72.3­
67.2
°
F
(
22.4­
19.6
°
C)
over
this
alkalinity
range
(
average
values
for
the
two
strains).
This
CTM
study
employed
a
stepped
temperature
increase
equal
to
1.8
°
F
(
1
°
C)/
d
up
to
an
exposure
temperature
of
68
°
F
(
20
°
C),
starting
from
an
acclimation
temperature
of
60.8
°
F
(
16
°
C).
After
68
°
F
(
20
°
C)
was
reached,
the
increments
were
1.8
°
F
(
1
°
C)/
4d.
Because
of
the
stepped
increases
and
the
two
different
rates
of
heating,
the
study
methodology
is
not
completely
analogous
to
conventional
CTM
technique.
The
initial
period
of
increase
to
68
°
F
(
20
°
C),
however,
could
be
considered
to
provide
nearly
full
acclimation
(
given
a
4­
d
acclimation
at
each
step)
before
the
subsequent
heating
schedule.
The
temperature
increase
rates
for
the
two
exposure
periods
averaged
approximately
0.04
°
C/
h
and
0.01
°
C/
h,
respectively
(
averaging
the
thermal
increase
over
the
step
time
interval).
CTM
test
s
provide
results
that
have
a
different
meaning
from
UILT
test
results.
Comparison
of
CTM
values
for
other
salmonids
that
have
corresponding
UILT
values
is
useful
to
understand
the
relative
thermal
tolerance
of
Lahontan
cutt
hroat
.
For
example,
appropriate
comparisons
of
CTM
values
among
species
can
be
made
by
contrasting
the
Lahontan
results
with
CTM
values
for
salmonids
whose
temperature
increase
rates
are
0.018­
0.14
°
F
(
0.01­
0.08
°
C)/
h
and
starting
from
acclimation
temperatures
of
60.8­
68
°
F
(
16­
20
°
C)
(
McCullough
1999).
Grande
and
Anderson
(
1991)
measured
a
CTM
of
79.3
°
F
(
26.3
°
C)
for
2­
to
3­
month­
old
rainbow
trout,
81
°
F
(
27.2
°
C)
for
3­
to
4­
month­
old
brook
trout,
and
78.6
°
F
(
25.9
°
C)
for
2­
t
o
4­
month­
old
lake
trout.
Elliott
and
Elliott
(
1995)
reported
CTM
of
81.9
°
F
(
27.74
°
C)
for
Atlantic
salmon
and
76.6
°
F
(
24.8
°
C)
for
brown
trout.
The
Lahontan
cutthroat
studies
reported
CTM
for
a
death
endpoint;
the
Grande
and
Anderson
studies
also
used
a
death
endpoint.
If
a
loss
of
equilibrium
(
LE)
endpoint
is
used
to
record
CTM,
the
crit
ical
temperature
is
generally
slightly
lower
than
if
a
death
endpoint
is
used.
For
example,
at
a
heating
rate
of
1.8
°
F
(
1
°
C)/
h,
Becker
and
Genoway
(
1979)
measured
a
CTM
for
coho
salmon
as
81.8
and
81.7
°
F
(
27.7
and
27.6
°
C)
for
the
LE­
and
death­
temperature
endpoints,
respectively.
However,
at
a
64.4
°
F
(
18
°
C)/
h
heating
rate,
these
values
were
83.6
and
85.4
°
F
(
28.7
and
29.7
°
C),
respectively.
In
conclusion,
the
CTM
values
for
Lahontan
cutthroat
trout,
compared
with
other
salmonids
tested
in
a
similar
manner
(
i.
e.,
rainbow
trout,
brook
trout,
lake
trout,
Atlantic
salmon,
brown
trout),
are
93
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
much
lower.
UILT
values
determined
in
other
studies
(
see
Table
4)
for
all
the
species
that
were
contrasted
above
with
Lahontan
ranged
from
73.4
to
79.5
°
F
(
23­
26.4
°
C).
Using
CTM
data
as
a
guide,
these
results
appear
t
o
indicate
that
Lahontan
cutthroat
would
likely
have
lower
UILT
values
than
these
other
salmonids.

Dickerson
and
coworkers
(
1999,
and
unpublished
data,
in
Dunham
1999)
found
in
laboratory
tests
at
constant
temperatures
that
survival
was
100%
at
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
but
dropped
to
35%
at
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C).
Tests
done
under
a
fluctuating
temperature
regime
of
68­
78.8
°
F
(
20­
26
°
C)
with
a
daily
mean
of
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C)
for
1
wk
showed
no
mortality
even
though
this
regime
provided
1­
h/
d
exposure
to
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C)
for
7
consecutive
days,
a
temperature
that
produced
mortality
during
longer
exposures
(
Dickerson
and
Vinyard
1999).
These
data
indicate
that
the
UILT
is
probably
between
77
and
78.8
°
F
(
25
and
26
°
C).
However,
temperature
adjustment
rates,
starting
from
an
initial
temperature
of
55.4
°
F
(
13
°
C),
were
7.2
°
F/
d
(
4
°
C/
d)
up
to
the
test
temperature.
That
is,
a
conventional
time
period
for
acclimation
was
not
allowed
prior
to
the
final
exposure
temperature.
This
could
result
in
a
slight
underprediction
of
UUILT.

What
are
the
therm
al
requirem
ents
for
w
estslope
cu
tthroat
trout?

Incubation
and
egg
survival.
In
a
study
by
Shepard
et
al.
(
1982),
westslope
cutthroat
trout
in
the
Flathead
River
basin,
Montana,
emerged
in
July
and
August
following
incubation
temperatures
ranging
from
35.6
to
50
°
F
(
2­
10
°
C).
Fry
were
approximately
20
mm
long
at
emergence.
Adult
westslope
cutthroat
trout
held
in
cool
35.6­
39.2
°
F
(
2­
4
°
C)
water
temperatures
produced
more
viable
eggs
than
those
held
in
constant
water
temperatures
of
50
°
F
(
10
°
C)
(
Smith
et
al.
1983,
in
Shepard
et
al.
1982).

Growth.
Westslope
cutthroat
streams
are
typically
cold,
nutrient­
poor
waters
in
which
conditions
for
growth
tend
to
be
less
than
optimal
(
Liknes
and
Graham
1988).

Spawning.
Initiation
and
timing
of
spawning
activity
is
related
to
water
temperatures.
Adults
move
into
tributaries
during
high
streamflows
and
spawn
in
the
spring
when
water
temperatures
are
near
50
°
F
(
10
°
C)
(
Scott
and
Crossman
1973).

Occurrence.
Westslope
cutthroat
trout
and
bull
trout
have
similar
life
history
patterns,
often
occupy
the
same
headwater
streams,
and
restrict
themselves
to
the
coldest
sections
of
streams
(
Jakober
et
al.
1998,
Behnke
1992).
Westslope
trout
prefer
cooler
water
temperatures
than
do
both
brook
trout
and
Yellowstone
cutthroat
trout
(
B.
Shepard,
personal
communication).

Westslope
cutthroat
trout
and
redband
trout
may
occur
in
the
same
system.
They
can
be
allopatric
or
sympatric,
but
the
redband
generally
inhabit
lower
reaches
and
cutthroat
trout
(
often
with
bull
trout)
dominate
the
upper,
higher
gradient
sections
where
annual
temperature
units
are
considerably
less
(
Mullan
et
al.
1992).

What
are
the
therm
al
requirem
ents
for
redband
trou
t?

Growth
and
feeding.
Dwyer
et
al.
(
1986)
conducted
temperature
experiments
at
39.2,
44.6,
50,
60.8,
and
66.2
°
F
(
4,
7,
10,
13,
16,
and
19
°
C)
on
rainbow
trout
and
redband
trout
94
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
collected
from
Threemile
Creek,
Catlow
Basin.
Redband
trout
from
Threemile
Creek
showed
the
best
growth
at
66.2
°
(
19
°
C)
(
no
higher
temperatures
were
tested),
whereas
rainbow
trout
exhibited
the
best
growth
at
59­
60.8
°
F
(
15­
16
°
C).

In
a
study
by
Sonski
(
1982,
as
cited
by
Sonski
1983b),
redband
trout
reached
their
maximum
growth
rate
at
68
°
F
(
20
°
C).
Growth
rates
were
less
at
both
59
°
F
(
15
°
C)
and
73
°
F
(
22.8
°
C).

Redband
trout
are
thought
to
exhibit
the
upper
limit
for
feeding
response
for
all
salmonids
of
the
Pacific
Northwest.
No
feeding
was
observed
by
Sonski
(
1982
as
cited
by
Sonski
1984)
for
juvenile
redband
at
temperatures
above
77.9­
80.6
°
F
(
25.5­
27
°
C).
In
a
comparison
of
thermal
tolerance
by
three
rainbow
trout
species,
Sonski
(
1984)
found
that
no
redband
trout
or
Wytheville
rainbow
fed
at
temperatures
higher
than
78.8
°
F
(
26
°
C),
and
the
Firehole
River
rainbow
would
not
feed
beyond
80
°
F
(
26.7
°
C).

Metabolic
activity
and
swimming
speed.
Gamperl
(
in
litt.)
conducted
temperature
studies
in
Bridge
Creek
("
warm"
stream)
and
Little
Blitzen
River
("
cold"
stream)
in
the
Harney
basin.
Gamperl's
studies
found
that
despite
the
two
streams'
different
thermal
histories,
redband
trout
from
each
stream
exhibited
a
similar
preferred
temperature
of
55
°
F
(
12.8
°
C).
Bridge
Creek
trout
had
greater
metabolic
power
and
improved
swimming
efficiency
at
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C)
than
at
53.6­
57.2
°
F
(
12­
14
°
C)
compared
with
the
Little
Blitzen
River
redband,
which
had
similar
values
for
metabolic
power
and
swimming
performance
at
53.6­
57.2
°
F
(
12­
14
°
C)
and
75.2
°
F
(
24
°
C).
Gamperl
concluded
that
some
populations
of
redband
trout
can
tolerate,
and
may
have
adapted
to,
warm
environmental
temperatures.
However,
these
studies
should
be
taken
as
preliminary
because
they
were
not
replicated.

Occurrence.
There
are
observations
of
redband
trout
feeding
and
surviving
at
relatively
high
temperatures
for
a
salmonid
(
82.4
°
F
[
28
°
C],
Behnke
1992;
81.3
°
F
[
27.4
°
C]
Sonski
1986;
80.6
°
F
[
27
°
C]
Bowers
et
al.
1979),
although
it
is
unclear
whether
temperatures
were
measured
in
the
vicinity
of
the
stream
that
the
fish
actually
inhabited.
These
trout
may
rely
on
microhabitats
or
thermal
refuges
to
maintain
populations
in
desert
environments
(
see
Ebersole
et
al.
in
press).

Lethal
effects.
In
a
comparison
of
thermal
resistance
among
redband
trout,
Firehole
River
rainbow,
and
Wytheville
rainbow,
Sonski
(
1984)
found
very
little
difference.
He
measured
UILT
values
for
subyearling
trout
acclimated
at
73.4
°
F
(
23
°
C)
of
79.1,
79.3,
and
80.6
°
F
(
26.2,
26.3,
and
27.0
°
C),
respectively.
These
values
are
probably
equivalent
to
UUILT
values
because
it
appears
that
resistance
was
not
improved
by
acclimation
beyond
59
°
F
(
15
°
C).
It
is
interesting
that
redband
trout
were
not
significantly
different
in
their
thermal
tolerance
from
other
rainbow
stocks,
despite
their
reputation
as
being
tolerant
of
higher
water
temperatures.
95
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
LITERATURE
CITED
Adams
BL,
Zaugg
WS,
McLain
LR.
1975.
Inhibition
of
salt
water
survival
and
Na­
K­
ATPase
elevation
in
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri)
by
moderate
water
temperatures.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
104(
4):
766­
769.

Adams
BL,
Zaugg
WS,
McLain
LR.
1973.
Temperature
effect
on
parr­
smolt
transformation
in
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri)
as
measur
ed
by
gill
sodium­
pota
ssium
stim
ulated
adenosine
tr
iphosphatase.
Comp
Biochem
Physiol
44A:
1333­
1339.

Alabaster
JS.
1988.
The
dissolved
oxygen
requirements
of
upstream
migrant
chinook
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha,
in
the
lower
Willamette
River,
Oregon.
J.
Fish
Biol
32:
635­
636.

Alcorn
SR.
1976.
Temperature
tolerances
and
upper
lethal
lim
its
of
Salmo
apache.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
105(
2):
294­
295.

Alderdice
DF,
Velsen
FPJ.
1978.
Relation
between
temperature
and
in
cubati
on
time
for
eggs
of
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha).
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
35(
1):
69­
75.

Alsop
DH,
Wood
CM.
1997.
The
interactive
effects
of
feeding
and
exercise
on
oxygen
consumption,
swimming
performance
and
protein
usage
in
juvenile
rainbow
trout
Oncorhynchus
mykiss).
J
Exp
Biol
200(
17):
2337­
2346.

Andrew
FJ,
Geen
GH.
1960.
Sockeye
and
pink
salmon
producti
on
in
r
elation
to
proposed
dams
in
the
Fra
ser
River
system.
Int
Pac
Salmon
Fish
Comm
Bull
XI.
259
pp.

Armour
CL.
1990.
Guidance
for
evaluating
and
recommending
temperature
regimes
to
protect
fish.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service,
Fort
Collins.
Biological
Report
90(
22).
13
pp.

Bailey
JE,
Evans
DR.
1971.
Th
e
low­
temperature
thr
eshold
for
pin
k
salmon
eggs
in
rel
ation
to
a
proposed
hydroelectric
installation.
Fish
Bull
69:
587­
593.

Baker
PF,
Speed
TP,
Ligon
FK.
1995.
Estimatin
g
the
influence
of
temperatur
e
on
th
e
survi
val
of
chinook
salmon
smolts
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
migrating
through
the
Sacramento­
San
Joaquin
River
Delta
of
California.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
52:
855­
863.

Balon
EK.
1980.
Ch
arrs,
salmonid
fishes
of
the
genus
Salvelinus.
The
Hague,
Netherlands:
Dr.
W.
Junk
by
Publishers.

Barnes
ME,
Hanten
RP,
Sayler
WA,
Cordes
RJ.
2000.
Viability
of
inland
fall
chinook
salmon
spawn
containing
overripe
eggs
and
the
reliability
of
egg
viability
estimates.
N
Am
J
Aquacult
62:
237­
239.

Baroudy
E,
Elliott
JM.
1994.
The
critical
thermal
limits
for
juvenile
Arctic
charr
Salvelinus
alpinus.
J
Fish
Biol
45:
1041­
1053.

Baxter
CV,
Hauer
FR.
2000.
Geomorphology,
interaction
of
hyporheic
exchange,
and
selection
of
spawning
habitat
by
bull
trout
(
Salvelinus
confluentus):
A
multi­
scale,
hierarchical
approach.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
576:
1470­
1481.

Beacham
TD,
Murray
CB.
1986.
Comparative
developmental
biology
of
chum
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
from
the
Fraser
River,
British
Columbia.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
43:
252­
262.

Beacham
TD,
Murray
CB.
1985.
Effect
of
female
size,
egg
size,
and
water
temperature
on
developmental
biology
of
chum
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
keta)
from
the
Nitinat
River,
British
Columbia.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
42(
11):
1755­
1765.
96
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Beacham
TD,
Murray
CB.
1990.
Temperatur
e,
egg
size,
and
development
of
embryos
and
alevin
s
of
five
species
of
Pacific
salmon:
A
comparative
analysis.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
119(
6):
927­
945.

Beacham
TD,
Withler
RE.
1991.
Genetic
variation
in
mortality
of
chinook
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
(
Walbaum),
challenged
with
high
water
temperatures.
Aquacult
Fish
Manage
22(
2):
125­
133.

Beamish,
FWH.
1978.
Swimming
capacity.
In:
Fish
physiology,
Vol.
VII.
San
Diego,
CA:
Academic
Press,
pp.
101­
187.

Beamish
FWH.
1980.
Swimming
performance
and
oxygen
consumption
of
the
charrs.
In:
Balon,
EK,
ed.
Charrs,
salmonid
fishes
of
the
genus
Salvelinus.
The
Hague,
Netherl
ands:
Dr.
W.
Junk
by
Publishers.

Becker
CD.
1973.
Columbia
River
thermal
effects
study:
Reactor
effluent
problems.
Water
Pollut
Con
tr
Fed
45(
5):
850­
869.

Becker
CD,
Genoway
RG.
1979.
Evaluat
ion
of
the
cri
tical
thermal
maximum
for
determin
ing
th
ermal
tolerance
of
freshwater
fish.
Environ
Biol
Fish
4(
3):
245­
256.

Beckman
BR,
Larsen
DA,
Sharpe
C,
Lee­
Pawlak
B,
Sch
reck
CB,
Dickhoff
WW.
2000.
Physiological
status
of
natur
ally
reared
juvenile
spri
ng
chin
ook
salmon
in
the
Yakim
a
River:
Seasonal
dynamics
and
cha
nges
associated
with
smolting.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
129:
727­
753.

Behnke
RJ.
1992.
Native
trout
of
western
North
America.
American
Fisheries
Society
Monograph
6.
American
Fisheries
Society,
Bethesda,
MD.
275
pp.

Bell
MC.
1986
.
Fish
eries
han
dbook
of
engineer
ing
requiremen
ts
an
d
biological
criteria.
US
Army
Corps
of
Engineers.
Fish
Passage
Development
and
Evaluation
Progr
am,
North
Paci
fic
Division
,
Portl
and,
OR.

Bennett
DH,
Karr
MH,
Madsen
MA.
1997.
Thermal
and
velocity
characteristics
in
the
Lower
Snake
River
reservoirs,
Washington,
as
a
result
of
regulated
upstream
water
releases.
U.
S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers
final
completion
report.
Project
14­
16­
0009­
1579.
178
pp.

Berman
CH.
1990.
The
effect
of
elevat
ed
holding
temperatures
on
adult
spring
chin
ook
salm
on
reproductive
success.
MS
thesis,
University
of
Washington,
Seattle,
WA.

Berman
CH.
1998.
Oregon
temperature
standard
review,
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Region
10,
Seattle,
WA.
63
pp.

Berman
CH,
Quinn
TP.
1990.
The
effect
of
elevat
ed
holding
temperatures
on
adult
spring
chinook
salmon
reproductive
success.
Submitted
to
TFW
Cooperative
Monitorin
g,
Evaluation,
an
d
Research
Committee,
Cen
ter
for
Streamside
Studies,
Fish
Res
Inst,
Seattle,
WA.

Berman
CH,
Quinn
TP.
1989.
The
effects
of
elevated
holding
temperatures
on
adult
spring
chin
ook
salmon
reproductive
success.
Timber/
Fish/
Wildlife
Rpt.
No.
TFW­
009­
89­
005.
Prepared
for
the
Cooperative
Monitoring,
Evaluation
and
Research
Committee
of
TFW.
University
of
Washington,
Seattle.
34
pp.

Beschta
RL,
Bilby
RE,
Brown
GW,
Holtby
LB,
Hofstra
TD.
1987.
Stream
temperature
and
aquatic
habitat:
fisheries
and
forestry
interactions.
In:
Salo
EO,
Cundy
TW,
eds.
Streamside
mangement:
forestry
and
fishery
interact
ions.
College
of
Forest
Resources,
Uni
versit
y
of
Washington,
Seattl
e.
Contribution
No.
57.
Proceedings
of
a
Symposium
held
at
University
of
Washington,
February
12­
14,
1986.
pp.
191­
231.

Bidgood
BF,
Berst
AH.
1969.
Lethal
temperatures
for
Great
Lakes
rainbow
trout.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
26:
456­
459.
97
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Biette
RM,
Geen
GH.
1980.
Growth
of
underyearling
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka)
under
constant
and
cyclic
temperatures
in
relation
to
live
zooplankton
ration
size.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
37(
2):
203­
210.

Bilby
RE,
Fransen
BR,
Bisson
PA.
1996.
Incorporation
of
nitrogen
and
carbon
from
spawning
coho
into
the
trophic
system
of
small
streams:
Evidence
from
stable
isotopes.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
53:
164­
173.

Bilby
RL,
Bisson
PA.
1998.
Function
and
distribution
of
large
woody
debris.
In:
Naiman
RJ,
Bilby
RE,
eds.
River
ecology
and
management:
Lessons
from
the
Pacific
coastal
ecoregion.
New
York:
Springer­
Verlag.

Billard
R.
1985.
Environmental
factors
in
salmonid
culture
an
d
the
control
of
reproduction.
In:
Iwamoto
RN,
Sower
S,
eds.
Salm
onid
repr
oduction:
An
intern
ational
symposium.
Washington
Sea
Grant
Progra
m,
Seattl
e,
WA.
pp.
70­
87.

Billard
R,
Breton
B.
1977.
Sensibilite
a
la
temperature
des
differentes
etapes
de
la
reproduction
chez
la
Truite
Arc­
en
ciel.
Cahiers
du
Laboratoire
de
Montereau
No.
5,
December
1977.
pp.
5­
24.

Billard
R,
Gillet
C.
1981.
Vieil
lissement
des
ovules
et
potentia
lisation
par
la
temperature
des
effets
des
micropollutants
du
milieu
aqueux
sur
les
gametes
ch
ez
la
t
ruit
e.
[
Ageing
of
eggs
an
d
temperat
ure
pot
enti
aliz
ation
of
micropollutant
effects
of
the
aquatic
medium
on
trout
gametes.]
Cahiers
du
Laboratoire
de
Montereau
No.
5,
December,
1977.
pp.
35­
42.

Bilton
HT,
Alderdice
DF,
Murr
ay
CB.
1982.
In
fluence
of
time
and
size
a
t
release
of
juven
ile
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
in
returns
at
mat
urity.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
39:
426­
447.

Bishai
HM.
1960.
Upper
lethal
temperatur
es
for
larval
sa
lmonids.
J
Cons
Cons
Perm
Inter
n
Explor
Mer
25:
129­
133.

Bjornn
TC,
Reiser
DW.
1991.
Habitat
requirements
of
anadromous
salmonids.
Influences
of
forest
and
rangeland
management
on
salmonid
fishes
and
their
habitats.
Am
Fish
Soc
Special
Publ
19:
83­
138.

Black
EC.
1953.
Upper
lethal
temperatures
of
some
British
Columbia
fishes.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
10:
196­
200.

Bonar
SA,
Pauley
GB,
Thomas
GL.
1989.
Species
pr
ofiles:
Life
hi
stories
and
environmental
r
equirements
of
coastal
fishes
and
invertebrates
(
Pacific
Northwest).
Pink
salmon.
Biol
Rep
US
Fish
Wild
Serv.
26
pp.

Bonneau
JL,
Scarnecchia
DL.
1996.
Distribution
of
juvenile
bull
trout
in
a
thermal
gradient
of
a
plunge
pool
in
Granite
Creek,
Idaho.
Tran
s
Am
Fish
Soc
125:
628­
630.

Bouck
GR.
1977.
Th
e
importance
of
water
quality
to
Columbia
River
salmon
and
steelhead.
Am
Fish
Soc
Spec
Publ
10:
149­
154.

Bouck
GR,
Chapman
GA,
Sch
neider
PW,
Stevens
DG.
1975.
Effects
of
h
oldin
g
temperatures
on
repr
oductive
development
in
adult
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorh
ynchus
nerka).
In
:
Donaldson
JR,
ed.
26th
annual
Northwest
Fish
Culture
Conference,
Otter
Creek,
OR.
pp.
24­
40.

Bowers
W,
Hosford
B,
Oakley
A,
Bond
C.
197
9.
Wil
dlife
h
abita
ts
in
managed
rangelands
 
the
Great
Basin
of
southeastern
Oregon.
Native
trout.
USDA
Forest
Service
Gen
Tech
Rpt
PNW­
84.

Brenkman
SJ,
Meyer
J.
1998.
Distribution
and
spawning
migration
of
bull
trout
(
Salvelinus
confluentus)
in
the
Hoh
River
Basin,
WA.
National
Park
Service,
Olympic
National
Park.
Port
Angeles,
Washington.
45
pp.

Brett
JR.
1971.
Energetic
responses
of
salmon
to
temperature.
A
study
of
some
thermal
relations
in
the
physiology
and
freshwater
ecology
of
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka).
Am
Zool
11(
1):
99­
113.
98
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Brett
JR.
1958.
Implica
tions
and
assessm
ents
of
en
vironmental
stress.
In:
La
rkin
PA,
ed.
Invest
igat
ions
of
fish­
power
problems.
HR
MacMillan
Lectures
in
Fisheries,
University
of
British
Columbia.
pp.
69­
83.

Brett
JR.
1983.
Life
energetics
of
sockeye
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
nerka.
In:
W.
P.
Aspey
WP,
Lustick
SI,
eds.
Behavioral
energetics:
The
cost
of
survival
in
vertebrates.
Ohio
State
University
Press,
pp.
29­
63.

Brett
JR.
1952.
Temperature
tolerance
in
young
Pacific
salmon,
genus
Oncorhynchus.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
9(
6):
265­
323.

Brett
JR.
1964.
T
he
respiratory
metabolism
and
swimming
performance
of
young
sockeye
salmon.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
21:
1183­
1226.

Brett
JR,
Glass
NR.
1973.
Metabolic
rates
and
critical
swimming
speeds
of
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka).
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
30:
379­
387.

Brett
JR,
Clarke
WC,
Shelbourn
JE.
19
82.
Experiments
on
thermal
r
equirements
for
growth
and
food
con
version
efficiency
of
juvenile
chinook
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha.
Can
Tech
Rep
Fish
Aquat
Sci
1127.
29
p.

Brett
JR,
Hollands
M,
Alderdice
DF.
1958.
The
effect
of
temperature
on
the
cruising
speed
of
young
sockeye
and
coho
salmon.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
15(
4):
587­
605.

Brett
JR,
Shelbourn
JE,
Shoop
CT.
1969.
Growth
rate
and
body
composition
of
fingerling
sockeye
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
nerka,
in
relation
to
temperature
and
ration
size.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
26(
9):
2363­
2394.

Brewin,
Monita
M,
eds.
19XX.
Friends
of
the
bull
t
rout
conferen
ce
proceedings.
Bull
Trout
T
ask
Force
(
Al
berta),
c/
o
Trout
Unlimited
Canada,
Calgary.

Brown
P.
1985.
Dolly
Varden
culture
in
British
Columbia.
In:
Mcdonald
DD,
ed.
Proceedings
of
the
Flathead
River
Basin
Bull
Trout
Biology
and
Population
Dynamics
Modelling
Information
Exchange.
July
24
and
25,
1985.
Fisheries
Branch,
BC,
Min
Environ.
Cr
anbrook,
British
Columbia,
Canada.
pp.
62­
67.

Bruin,
Waldsdorf.
1975.

Buchanan
D,
Gregory
SV.
1997.
Development
of
water
temperatur
e
stan
dards
to
pr
otect
and
r
estore
habitat
for
bull
trout
and
other
cold
water
species
in
Oregon.
In:
Mackay
WC,
Berwin
MK.

Bumgarner
J,
Mendel
G,
Milks
D,
Ross
L,
Varney
M,
Dedloff
J.
1997.
Tucannon
River
spring
chinook
hatchery
evaluation.
1996
Annual
report.
Washington
Department
of
Fish
and
Wildlife,
Hatcheries
Program
Assessment
and
Development
Division.
Report
#
H97­
07.
Produced
for
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Ser
vice.
Cooperat
ive
Agreement
14­
48­
0001­
96539.

Burrows
R.
1963.
Water
temperature
requirements
for
maximum
productivity
of
salmon.
In:
Water
temperature
influences,
effects,
and
contr
ol.
Pr
oc.
12th
Northwest
Symp.
Water
Pol
lution
Research.
U.
S.
Department
of
Health,
Education,
and
Welfare,
Public
Health
Service,
Pacific
Northwest
Water
Laboratory,
Corvallis,
OR.
pp.
29­
38.

Cada
GF,
Loar
JM,
Sale
MJ.
1987.
Evidence
of
food
limitation
of
rainbow
and
brown
trout
in
southern
Appalachian
soft­
water
streams.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
116:
692­
702.

California
Department
of
Water
Resources
(
CDWR).
1988
.
Water
tem
perature
effects
on
chin
ook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
with
emph
asis
on
the
Sacramen
to
River:
A
liter
ature
review.
Northern
Distr
ict
Office
Report,
Red
Bluff,
CA.
42
pp.
99
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Castleberr
y
DT,
Cech
JJ
Jr,
Saiki
MK,
Martin
BA.
1991.
Growth
,
condition
,
and
physiologica
l
performance
of
juvenile
salmonids
from
the
Lower
American
River:
February
through
June,
1991.
Final
report.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
and
University
of
California,
Davis.
120
pp.

Cederholm
CJ,
Johnson
DH,
Bilby
RE,
Dominguez
LG,
Garrett
AM,
Graeber
WH,
Greda
EL,
Kunze
MD,
Marcot
BG,
Palmisano
JF,
Plotnikoff
RW,
Pearcy
WG,
Simenstad
CA,
Trotter
PC.
2000.
Pacific
salmon
and
wildlife:
Ecological
con
texts,
rel
ation
ships,
and
implicat
ions
for
management.
Special
edit
ion
technical
r
eport,
prepared
for
DH
Johnson
and
TA
O'Neil
(
Managing
Directors).
Wildlife­
habitat
relations
in
Oregon
and
Washington.
Washington
Department
of
Fish
and
Wildlife,
Olympia.

Chandrasekaran
G,
Subba
Rao
B.
1979.
On
the
growth
and
survival
of
rainbow
trout
reared
in
stagnant
pond
at
higher
water
temperature
and
low
dissolved
oxygen.
Matsya
5:
35­
37.

Charlon
N,
Barbier
B,
Bonnet
L.
1970.
Résistance
de
la
truite
arc­
en­
ciel
(
Salmo
gairdneri
Richardson)
a
des
variations
brusques
de
température.
Ann
Hydrobiol
1(
1):
73­
89.

Cherry
DS,
Dickson
KL,
Cairns
J
Jr,
Stauffer
JR.
1977.
Preferred,
avoided,
and
lethal
temperatures
of
fish
during
rising
temperature
conditions.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
34:
239­
246.

Christie
GC,
Regier
HA.
1988.
Measures
of
optimal
thermal
habitat
an
d
their
relationship
to
yields
for
four
commercial
fish
species.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
45:
301­
314.

Clarke
WC.
1978.
Growth
of
underyearling
sockeye
salmon
(
Onchorhynchus
nerka)
on
diel
temperature
cycles.
Fisheries
and
Environment
Can
ada,
Fisheries
and
Marine
Service
Technical
Report
No.
780.

Clarke
WC,
Shelbourn
JE.
1985.
Gr
owth
and
development
of
seawater
adaptabil
ity
by
juveni
le
fall
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
in
relation
to
temperature.
Aquaculture
45:
21­
31.

Clarke
WC,
Withler
RE,
Shelbourn
JE.
19
92.
Geneti
c
contr
ol
of
juvenile
li
fe
hist
ory
pattern
in
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha).
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
49:
2300­
2306.

Combs
BD.
1965.
Effect
of
temperature
on
the
development
of
salmon
eggs.
Prog
Fish­
Cult
27(
3):
134­
137.

Congleton
JL,
LaVoie
WJ,
Schreck
CB,
Davis
LE.
2000.
Stress
indices
in
migrating
juvenile
chinook
salmon
and
steelhead
of
wild
and
hatchery
origin
before
and
after
barge
transportation.
Tran
s
Am
Fish
Soc
129:
946­
961.

Connor
WP,
Burge
HL,
Bennett
DH.
1999.
Detection
of
PIT­
tagged
subyearlin
g
chinook
salmon
at
a
Snake
River
dam:
Implications
for
summer
flow
augmentation.
Chapter
5.
In:
Tiffan
KF,
Connor
WP,
Burge
HL,
eds.
Identifica
tion
of
the
spawning,
rearin
g,
and
m
igratory
requirements
of
fall
chinook
salmon
in
the
Columbia
River
basin.
Annual
report
1996­
1997.
U.
S.
Department
of
Energy,
Bonneville
Power
Administration,
Portland,
OR.
Project
Number
91­
029.

Connor
WP,
Bjornn
TC,
Burge
HL,
Garcia
AP,
Rondorf
DW.
1999.
Early
life
history
and
survival
of
natural
subyearling
fall
chin
ook
salm
on
in
the
Sn
ake
an
d
Clearwater
ri
vers
in
1995.
Chapter
2.
In
:
Tiffan
KF,
Connor
WP,
Burge
HL,
eds.
Identification
of
the
spawning,
rearing,
and
migratory
requirements
of
fall
chinook
salmon
in
the
Columbia
River
basin.
Annual
report
1996­
1997.
U.
S.
Department
of
En
ergy,
Bonneville
Power
Administration,
Portlan
d,
OR.
Project
Number
91­
029.

Coutant
CC.
1977.
Compilation
of
temperature
preference
data.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
34:
739­
745.

Coutant
CC.
1999.
Perspectives
on
tem
peratur
e
in
the
Pa
cific
Northwest'
s
fresh
waters.
Environmental
Sciences
Division
Publication
4849
(
ORNL/
TM­
1999/
44),
Oak
Ridge
National
Laboratory,
Oak
Ridge,
TN,
108
pp.
100
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Coutant
CC.
1987.
Therma
l
preference:
When
does
an
a
sset
become
a
liability?
Environ
Biol
Fish
18(
3):
161­
172.

Coutant
CC.
1970
.
Thermal
resi
stan
ce
of
adul
t
coho
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
and
jack
chinook
(
O.
tshawytscha)
salmon,
and
adult
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri)
from
the
Columbia
River.
AEC
Research
and
Development
Report.
Battelle
Memorial
Institute,
Pacific
Northwest
Laboratories.
BNWL­
1508.

Coutant
CC.
1972.
Water
quality
criteria.
A
report
of
the
committee
on
water
quality
criteria.
p.
151­
170
(
text)
and
Appendix
II
­
C
(
p.
410­
419).
In:
Nation
al
Academy
of
Scien
ces,
National
Academy
of
Engineers,
EPA
Ecol
Res
Ser
EPA­
R3­
73­
033,
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Washington,
DC.
594
pp.

Craig
JK,
Foote
CJ,
Wood
CC.
1996.
Eviden
ce
for
tem
perature­
depen
dent
sex
determination
in
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka).
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
53:
141­
147.

Craigie
DE.
1963.
An
effect
of
water
hardness
in
the
thermal
resistance
of
the
rainbow
trout,
Salmo
gairdneri
Richardson.
Can
J
Zool
41:
825­
831.

Crawford
NH,
Hey
DL,
Street
RL.
1976.
Colum
bia
River
water
temperature
study.
Fin
al
Report,
con
tract
DACW57­
75­
C­
0304.
Prepared
by
Hydrocomp,
Inc.
for
U.
S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers,
North
Pacific
Region.

Cunjak
RA,
Green
JM.
1986.
Influence
of
water
tem
perature
on
beha
vioura
l
intera
ctions
between
juvenile
brook
charr,
Salvelinus
fontinalis,
and
rainbow
trout,
Salmo
gairdneri.
Can
J
Zool
64(
6):
1288­
1291.

Currie
S,
Tufts
BL.
1997.
Synthesis
of
stress
protein
70
(
Hsp70)
in
rainbow
trout
(
Oncorhynchus
mykiss)
red
blood
cells.
200(
3):
607­
614.

Dahlberg
ML,
Shumway
DL,
Doudoroff
P.
1968.
Influence
of
dissolved
oxygen
and
carbon
dioxide
on
swimming
per
Daformance
of
largemouth
bass
and
coho
salmon.
J
Fish
Res
Board
Can
25:
49­
70.

Dauble
DD,
Mueller
RP.
1993.
Factors
affecting
the
survival
of
upstream
migrant
adult
salmonids
in
the
Columbia
River
basin
.
Recovery
issues
for
thr
eaten
ed
and
endangered
Sn
ake
River
salmon.
Technical
Report
9
of
11.
Pr
epared
for
U.
S.
Department
of
Energy,
Bonneville
Power
Administr
ation
,
Div
Fish
Wildlf,
Project
No.
98­
026,
June
1993.

Dauble
DD,
Watson
DG.
1997.
Status
of
fall
chinook
salmon
populations
in
the
mid­
Columbia
River,
1948­
1992.
N
Am
J
Fish
Manage
17:
283­
300.

Davis
GE,
Foster
JF,
Warren
CE,
Doudoroff
P.
1963.
The
influence
of
oxygen
concentration
on
the
swimming
performance
of
juvenile
Pacific
salmon
at
various
temperatures.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
92:
111­
124.

deGaudemar
B,
Beall
E.
1998.
Effects
of
overripenin
g
on
spawning
behaviour
and
repr
oductive
success
of
Atlantic
salmon
females
spawning
in
a
controlled
flow
channel.
J
Fish
Biol
53:
434­
446.

DeHart
DA.
1975.
Resi
stan
ce
of
thr
ee
fresh
water
fishes
to
fluct
uating
th
ermal
environments.
MS
thesis,
Oregon
State
Universit
y,
Corvall
is,
OR.

De
Leeuw
AD.
1982
.
The
effects
of
logging
on
benthic
inver
tebra
te
stream
dr
ift
an
d
trou
t
growt
h
ra
tes
in
two
small
west
coast
Vancouver
Island
streams.
In:
Hartman
GF,
ed.
Proceedings
of
the
Carnation
Creek
Workshop,
a
10­
year
review.
Pacific
Biol
Station,
Nanaimo,
BC.

Dickson
IW,
Kramer
RH.
1971.
Fact
ors
in
fluencing
scope
for
a
ctivit
y
and
active
standard
metabolism
of
rainbow
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri).
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
28:
587­
596.
101
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Dietz
TJ.
1994.
Acclimation
of
the
threshold
induction
temperatures
for
70­
kDa
and
90­
kDa
heat
shock
proteins
in
the
fish
Gillichthys
mirabilis.
J
Exp
Biol
188(
1):
333­
338.

Dockray
JJ,
Reid
SD,
Wood
CM.
1996.
Effects
of
elevated
summer
temperatures
and
r
educed
pH
on
metabolism
and
growth
of
juvenile
rainbow
trout
(
Oncorhynchus
mykiss)
on
unli
mited
ra
tion.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
53:
2752­
2763.

Donaldson
JR.
1955.
Experimental
studies
on
the
survival
of
the
early
stages
of
chinook
salmon
after
varying
exposures
to
upper
lethal
temperatures.
MS
thesis,
University
of
Washington.

Donaldson
LR,
Foster
FJ.
1941.
Experimental
study
of
the
effect
of
various
water
temperatures
on
the
growth,
food
utilization,
and
mortality
rate,
of
fingerling
sockeye
salmon.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
70:
339­
346.

Dong
JN.
1981.
Thermal
toler
ance
a
nd
r
ate
of
developmen
t
of
coho
salmon
embryos.
MS
thesis,
Un
iversi
ty
of
Washington.

Dunham
J.
1999.
Stream
temperature
criteria
for
Oregon's
Lahontan
cutthroat
trout
Oncorhynchus
clarki
henshawi.
Final
Report
issued
to
Oregon
Department
of
Environmental
Quality,
Department
of
Biology
and
Biological
Resources
Research
Center,
University
of
Nevada,
Reno.
43
pp.

Dwyer
WP,
Smith
CE,
Piper
RG.
1981.
Rainbow
trout
growth
efficiency
as
affected
by
temperature.
Developments
in
fish
culture:
Bozeman
information
leaflet
number
18.
U.
S.
Department
of
the
Interior.
Bozeman,
MT.

Ebersole
JL,
Liss
WJ,
Frissell
CA.
In
press.
Relationship
between
stream
temperature,
thermal
refugia
and
rainbow
trout
Oncorhynchus
mykiss
abundance
in
a
rid­
land
streams
in
th
e
northwestern
Un
ited
States
.
Ecol
Freshwater
Fish.

Edsall
TA,
Cleland
J.
2000.
Optimum
temperatures
for
growth
and
preferred
temperatures
of
age­
0
lake
trout.
N
Am
J
Fish
Manage
20:
804­
809.

Edwards
RW,
Densen
JW,
Russell
PA.
1979.
An
assessment
of
the
importance
of
temperature
as
a
factor
controlling
the
growth
rate
of
brown
trout
in
streams.
J
Anim
Ecol
48:
501­
507.

Elle
S,
Th
urow
R,
Lamansky
T.
1994.
Rapi
d
River
bull
trout
movement
an
d
mortality
studies.
Project
number
F­
73­
R­
16.
Subproject
II,
Study
IV.
Idaho
Depar
tment
of
Fish
and
Game.

Elliott
JM.
1981.
Some
aspects
of
thermal
stress
on
freshwater
teleosts.
In:
Pickering
AD,
ed.
Stress
and
fish.
San
Diego,
CA:
Academic
Press,
pp.
209­
245.

Elliot
t
JM.
1994.
Quantitative
ecology
an
d
the
brown
trout
.
Oxford
Series
in
Ecology
and
Evolution
.
In:
RM
May,
Harvey
PH,
eds.
Oxford,
England:
Oxford
University
Press.
286
pp.

Elliott
JM.
1975a.
The
growth
rate
of
brown
trout
(
Salmo
trutta
L.)
fed
on
maximum
ration
s.
J
Anim
Ecol
44:
805­
821.

Elliott
JM.
1975b.
The
growth
rate
of
brown
trout,
Salmo
trutta
L.,
fed
on
reduced
rations.
J
Anim
Ecol
44:
823­
842.

Elli
ott
JM,
Elli
ott
JA.
1995.
The
effect
of
the
rate
of
temperature
increase
on
the
cr
itica
l
thermal
maximum
for
parr
of
Atlantic
salmon
and
brown
trout.
J
Fish
Biol
47:
917­
919.

Elliott
JM,
Hurley
MA.
1999.
Energetics
model
for
brown
trout.
Freshwater
Biol
42:
235­
246.
102
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Elliott
JM,
Hurley
MA,
Fryer
RJ.
1995.
A
new,
improved
growth
model
for
brown
trout,
Salmo
trutta.
Funct
Ecol
9:
290­
298.

Ensign
WE,
Strange
RJ.
1990.
Summer
food
limitation
reduces
brook
and
rainbow
trout
biomass
in
a
southern
Appalachian
stream.
Tr
ans
Am
Fish
Soc
119:
894­
901.

Evans
DO.
1990.
Metabolic
thermal
compensation
by
rainbow
trout:
Effects
on
standard
metabolic
rate
and
potential
usable
power.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
119:
585­
600.

Everson
LB.
1973.
Growth
and
food
consumption
of
juvenile
coho
salmon
exposed
to
na
tural
and
elevated
fluctuating
temperatures.
MS
Thesis,
Or
egon
State
Universit
y.

Ferguson
RG.
1958.
The
preferred
temperatures
of
fish
and
their
midsummer
distribution
in
temperate
lakes
and
streams.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
15:
607­
624.

Fields
R,
Lowe
SS,
Kaminski
C,
Whitt
GS,
Philipp
DP.
1987.
Critical
and
chronic
thermal
maxima
of
northern
and
Florida
largemouth
bass
and
their
r
eciprocal
F1
and
F2
hybrids.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
116:
856­
863.

Fish
FF.
1944.
The
retention
of
adult
salmon
with
particular
reference
to
the
Grand
Coulee
Fish
Salvage
Program.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
Special
Scientific
Report
No.
27.

Fish
FF.
1948.
The
return
of
blueback
salmon
to
the
Columbia
River.
Sci
Monthly
(
Wash)
66:
283­
292.

Fish
FF,
Hanavan
MG.
1948.
A
report
upon
the
Grand
Coulee
fish­
maintenance
project
1939­
1947.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service,
Special
Science
Report
55.
63
pp.

Fish
Passage
Center.
1993.
Fish
Passage
Center
ann
ual
report.
Fish
Passage
Center
of
the
Columbia
Basin
Fish
and
Wildlife
Au
thori
ty,
Portland,
OR.

Flett
PA,
Munkittrick
KR,
Van
Der
Kraak
G,
Leatherland
JF.
1996.
Overripening
as
the
cause
of
low
survival
to
hatch
in
Lake
Erie
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
embryos.
Can
J
Zool
74:
851­
857.

Folmar
LC,
Dickhoff
WW,
Mahnken
CVW,
Waknitz
FW.
1982.
Stunting
and
parr­
reversion
during
smoltification
of
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch).
Aquaculture
28:
91­
104.

Frissell
CA,
Nawa
RK,
Liss
WJ.
1992.
Water
temperature
and
distribution
and
diversity
of
salmonid
fishes
in
Sixes
River
Basin,
Oregon,
USA:
Changes
since
1965­
1972.
In:
Frissell
CA,
ed.
Cumulative
effects
of
land
use
on
salmon
habitat
in
southwest
Oregon
coastal
streams.
Ph.
D.
thesis,
Oregon
State
University,
Corvallis,
OR.
pp.
127­
172.

Frost
WE,
Brown
ME.
1967.
The
trout.
New
Naturalist
Series,
Collins,
St.
James
Place.
London.

Fry
FEJ.
1947.
Effects
of
the
environment
on
animal
activity.
University
of
Toronto
Stud.,
Biol.
Ser.,
No.
55.
Pub.
Ont.
Fish.
Res.
Lab.,
No.
68.
62
pp.

Fry
FEJ.
1971.
The
effect
of
environmental
factors
on
the
physiology
of
fish.
In:
Hoar
WS,
Randall
DJ,
eds.
Fish
physiology.
Vol.
VI:
Environmental
relations
and
behavior.
San
Diego,
CA:
Academic
Press,
pp.
1­
98.

Fry
FEJ,
Gibson
MB.
1953.
Lethal
temper
ature
exper
iments
with
speckled
tr
out
x
lake
tr
out
hybrids.
J
Hered
44(
2):
56­
57.

Fry
FEJ,
Hart
JS,
Walker
NF.
1946.
Lethal
temperature
relations
for
a
sample
of
young
speckled
trout,
Salvelinus
fontinalis.
Univ
Toronto
Studies,
Biol
Ser
54,
On
Fish
Res
Lab
Publ
66:
9­
35.
103
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Fuss
H.
1998.
Personal
communication
with
Howard
Fuss
of
the
Washington
State
Department
of
Fish
and
Wildlife
Hatchery
Program.

Garlin
g
DL,
Masterson
M.
1985.
Survival
of
Lake
Mich
igan
chinook
salmon
egs
and
fr
y
incubated
at
three
temperatures.
Prog
Fish­
Culturist
47:
63­
66.

Garside
ET,
Tait
JS.
1958.
Preferred
temperature
of
rainbow
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri,
Richardson)
and
its
unusual
relationship
to
acclimation
temperature.
Can
J
Zool
36:
563­
567.

Gilhousen
P.
1980.
Energy
sources
and
expenditures
in
Fraser
River
sockeye
salmon
during
their
spawning
migration.
Int
Pac
Salmon
Fish
Comm
Bull
XXII.
51
pp.

Gilhousen
P.
1990.
Prespawning
mortalities
of
sockeye
salmon
in
the
Fraser
River
system
and
possible
causal
factors.
Bull
Int
Pac
Salmon
Fish
Comm
26.
62
pp.

Golden
JT.
19
75.
Immediate
effects
of
logging
on
th
e
freshwater
environment
salmonids:
Lethal
temperatures
for
coastal
cutthroat
t
rout
under
fluctuat
ing
temperat
ure
regimes.
Job
progress
report,
1974­
1975.
OR
Dept
Fish
Wildlf
Fed
Aid
Prog
Rep
Anadrom
Fish
Proj
AFS­
585.
7
pp.

Golden
JT.
1976.
Lethal
temperatures
for
coastal
cutthroat
trout
under
fluctuating
temperature
regimes.
Federal
Aid
Progress
Reports,
Fisheries.
Oregon
Department
of
Fish
and
Wildlife.
14
pp.

Golden
JT,
Schreck
CB.
1978.
Effects
of
fluctuating
temperatures
on
the
thermal
tolerance
limits
of
coastal
cutthroat
trout
(
Salmo
clarki
clarki).
Unpublished
MS,
Oregon
Departmen
t
of
Fish
Wi
ldlife.
Corvall
is,
OR.

Grabowski
SJ.
1973.
Effects
of
fluctuating
and
constan
t
temperatur
es
on
some
hematological
characteristics,
tissue
glycogen
levels,
and
growth
of
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri).
Ph
.
D.
disser
tation.
Universi
ty
of
Idah
o.
77
pp.

Grande
M,
Andersen
S.
1991.
Critical
th
ermal
maxima
for
young
salmonids.
J
Freshwater
Ecol
6(
3):
275­
279.

Gregor
y
SV,
Lamberti
GA,
Erman
DC,
Koski
KV,
Murphy
ML,
Sedell
JR.
1987.
In
fluences
of
forest
practices
on
aquatic
production.
In:
Salo
EO,
Cundy
T,
eds.
Streamside
management­
forestry
and
fisheries
interactions.
College
of
Forest
Resources,
Uni
versity
of
Washington,
Contribution
No.
57.
Seat
tle.

Griffiths
JS,
Alderdice
DF.
1972.
Effects
of
acclimation
and
acute
temperature
experience
on
the
swimming
speed
of
juvenile
coho
salmon.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
29(
3):
251­
264.

Groves
PA,
Chandler
JA.
1999.
Spawning
habitat
used
by
fall
chinook
salmon
in
the
Snake
River.
N
Am
J
Fish
Manag
19:
912­
922.

Hahn
PKJ.
1977.
Effects
of
fluctuating
and
constant
temperatures
on
behavior
of
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri).
PhD
dissertation.
University
of
Idaho.
Dissertation
Abstracts
Int
B
Sci
Eng
38(
12):
5668.

Hall
JD,
Lantz
RL.
1969.
Effects
of
logging
on
the
habitat
of
coho
salmon
and
cutthroat
trout
in
coastal
streams.
Techn
ical
Paper
No.
2570.
Oregon
Agricultur
al
Experiment
Station.
In:
Northcote
TG,
ed.
Symposium
on
Salmon
an
d
Trout
in
Strea
ms.
H.
R.
MacMillan
Lectu
res
in
Fisheries.
Ins
titu
te
of
Fish
eries,
the
Univer
sity
of
British
Columbia,
Vancouver.

Hallock
RJ,
Elwell
RF,
Fry
DH.
1970.
Migrations
of
adult
kind
salmon
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha
in
the
San
Joaquin
Delta
as
demonstrated
by
the
use
of
sonic
tags.
California
Dept
Fish
Game
Fish
Bull
151.
92
pp.

Hartman
GF,
Holtby
LB,
JC
Scrivener.
1984.
Some
effects
of
natural
and
logging­
related
winter
stream
temperature
changes
on
the
early
life
history
of
the
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
in
Carnation
Cr
eek,
104
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
British
Columbia.
In:
Meehan
WR,
Merrell
TR
Jr,
Hanley
TA,
eds.
Fish
and
wildlife
relationships
in
old­
growth
forests;
proceedings
of
a
symposium.
American
Institute
of
Fishery
Research
Biologists,
Morehead
City,
NC.
pp.
141­
149.

Hatch
D,
Wand
A,
Porter
A,
Schwartzberg
M.
1993.
The
feasibility
of
estimating
sockeye
salmon
escapement
at
Zosel
Dam
using
underwater
video
techn
ology.
1992
Annual
progr
ess
report
pr
epared
for
Publi
c
Utility
Distr
ict
No.
1
of
Douglas
County.
Columbia
River
Inter­
Tribal
Fish
Commission,
Portlan
d,
OR.
27
p.

Hawkins
CP,
Murphy
ML,
Anderson
NH,
Wilzbach
MA.
1983.
Density
of
fish
and
salamanders
in
relation
to
riparian
canopy
and
physical
habitat
in
streams
of
the
northwestern
United
States.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
40:
1173­
1185.

Healey
T.
1979.
The
effect
of
high
temperature
on
the
survival
of
Sacramento
River
chinook
(
king)
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha),
eggs
an
d
fry.
Californ
ia
Department
of
Fish
and
Game,
Anadr
omous
Fisheries
Branch,
Administrative
Report
No.
79­
10.
7
pp.

Heath
WG.
1963.
Thermoperiodism
in
the
sea­
run
cutthroat
(
Salmo
clarki
clarki).
Science
142:
486­
488.

Heming
TA.
1982.
Effecs
of
temperature
on
utilization
of
yolk
by
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
eggs
and
alevins.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
39:
184­
190.

Heming
TA,
McInerney
JE,
Ald
erdice
DF.
19
82.
Effect
of
temperature
on
in
itia
l
feedin
g
in
a
levin
s
of
chin
ook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha).
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
39:
12:
1554­
1562.

Hicks
M.
1999.
Evaluatin
g
standar
ds
for
protecting
aquat
ic
life
in
Washin
gton's
surface
water
quali
ty
standards:
temperature
criteria.
preliminary
review
draft
discussion
paper,
WA
St
Dept
Ecol.
Olympia,
WA,
95
pp.

Hicks
M.
2000.
Evaluatin
g
standar
ds
for
protecting
aquat
ic
life
in
Washin
gton's
surface
water
quali
ty
standards:
temperature
criteria.
Prelimin
ary
review
draft
discussion
paper,
WA
St
Dept
Ecol.
Olympia,
WA.

Hinch
SG,
Bratty
J.
2000.
Effects
of
swim
speed
and
activi
ty
pattern
on
success
of
adult
sockeye
salmon
migration
thr
ough
an
area
of
difficult
passage.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
129:
598­
606.

Hinch
SG,
Rand
PS.
1998.
Swim
speeds
and
energy
use
of
upriver­
migrating
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka):
Role
of
local
environment
and
fish
characteristics.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
55:
1821­
1831.

Hoar
WS.
1988.
The
physiology
of
smolting
salmonids.
In:
Hoar
WS,
Randall
DJ,
eds.
Fish
physiology.
Vol.
XIB.
New
York,
NY:
Academic
Press,
pp.
275­
343.

Hokanson
KEF.
1977.
Temperature
requirements
of
some
percids
and
adaptations
to
seasonal
temperature
cycle.
J
Fish
Res
Board
Can
34(
10):
1524­
1550.

Hokanson
KEF,
Kleiner
CF,
Thorslund
TW.
1977.
Effects
of
constant
temperatures
and
diel
temperature
fluctuations
on
specific
growth
and
mortality
rates
and
yield
of
juvenile
rainbow
trout,
Salmo
gairdneri.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
34(
5):
639­
648.

Hokanson
KEF,
McCormick
JH,
Jones
BR,
Tucker
JH.
1973.
Thermal
requirements
for
maturation,
spawning,
and
embryo
survival
of
the
brook
trout
(
Salvelinus
fontinalis).
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
30:
975­
984.

Holtby
LB,
McMahon
TE,
Scriven
er
JC.
1989.
Stream
temperatures
and
inter­
annual
var
iabil
ity
in
the
em
igra
tion
timing
of
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
smolts
and
fry
and
chum
salmon
(
O.
keta)
fry
from
Carnation
Creek,
British
Columbia.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
46:
1396­
1405.
105
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Humpesch
UH.
1985.
In
ter­
and
intra­
specifi
c
variation
in
h
atching
success
and
embryonic
development
of
five
species
of
salmonids
and
Thymallus
thymallus.
Arch
Hydrobiol
104(
1):
129­
144.

Hutchison
VH,
Maness
JD.
1979.
The
role
of
behavior
in
temperature
acclimation
and
tolerance
in
ectotherms.
Am
Zool
19:
367­
384.

Independent
Scient
ific
Group.
1996.
Return
to
the
river
:
Restoration
of
salmonid
fish
es
in
the
columbia
river
ecosystem.
Prepublicat
ion
Copy.

Iwama
GK,
Th
omas
PT,
Forshyth
RB,
Vijayan
MM.
1998.
Heat
shock
prot
ein
expression
in
fish
.
Rev
Fish
Biol
Fish
8:
35­
56.

Jakober
MJ,
McMahon
TE,
Thurow
RF,
Clancy
CG.
1998.
Role
of
stream
ice
on
fall
and
winter
movements
and
habitat
use
by
bull
trout
and
cutthroat
trout
in
Montana
headwater
streams.
Tran
s
Am
Fish
Soc127:
223­
235.

James
BB,
Pearsons
TN,
McMichael
GA.
1998.
Spring
chinook
salmon
interactions
indices
and
residual
/
precocial
m
onitorin
g
in
the
upper
Yakima
Basin.
Report
to
Bonneville
Power
Admin
istration,
Cont
ract
No.
1995BI64878,
Project
No.
9506409.
44
electronic
pages.
BPA
Report
DOE/
BP­
64878­
4.

James
PW,
Sexauer
HM.
1997.
Spawning
behavior,
spawning
habitat
and
alternative
mating
strategies
in
an
adfluvial
population
of
bull
trout.
In:
Mackay
WC,
Brewin
MK,
Monita
M,
eds.
Friends
of
the
bull
trout
conference
proceedings.
Bull
Trou
t
Task
Force
(
Alberta),
c/
o
Trout
Unlimited
Canada,
Calgary.

Jensen
AJ.
1990.
Growth
of
young
migratory
brown
trout
Salmo
trutta
correlated
with
water
temperature
in
Norwegian
rivers.
J
Anim
Ecol
59(
2):
603­
614.

Jobling
M.
1983.
Influence
of
body
weight
and
temperature
on
growth
rates
of
Arctic
charr,
Salvelinus
alpinus
(
L.).
J
Fish
Biol
22:
471­
475.

Jobling
M.
1981.
Temperature
tolerance
and
final
preferendum
 
rapid
methods
for
the
assessment
of
optimum
growth
temperatures.
J
Fish
Biol
19:
439­
455.

Johnson
J.
1960.
Sonic
tracking
of
adult
salmon
at
Bonneville
Dam,
1957.
US
Fish
Wildlf
Serv,
Fish
Bull
176:
471­
485.

Johnson
HE,
Brice
RF.
1953.
Effects
of
transportation
of
green
eggs,
and
of
watertemperature
during
incubation,
on
the
mortality
of
chinook
salmon.
Prog
Fish­
Cult
15:
104­
108.

Johnston
CE,
Saunders
RL.
1981.
Parr­
smolt
transformation
of
yearling
Atlantic
salmon
(
Salmo
salar)
at
several
rearing
temperatur
es.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
38(
10):
1189­
1198.

Kamler
E,
Kat
o
T.
198
3.
Effi
ciency
of
yolk
ut
ilization
by
Salmo
gairdneri
in
relation
to
incubation
temperature
and
egg
size.
Pol
Arch
Hydrobiol
30:
271­
306.

Karr
MH,
Fryer
JK,
Mundy
PR.
1998.
Snake
River
water
temperatur
e
contr
ol
project.
Ph
ase
II.
Methods
for
managing
an
d
monitoring
water
temperat
ures
in
r
elation
to
salmon
in
the
lower
Sna
ke
River.
Columbia
River
Inter­
Tribal
Fish
Commission,
Prepared
for
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Region
10,
Contract
No.
X­
990375­
01­
1.
209
pp.

Karr
M,
Tanovan
B,
Turner
R,
Bennett
D.
1992.
Interim
report:
Model
studies
and
1991
oper
ations.
Water
temperature
con
trol
project
,
Sna
ke
River.
Columbia
River
In
ter­
Tribal
Fish
Commissi
on,
U.
S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers,
and
University
of
Idaho
Fish
and
Wildlife
Resources
Department.
58
pp.
106
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Kaya
CM.
1978.
Thermal
resistance
of
rainbow
trout
from
a
permanently
heated
stream,
and
of
two
hatchery
strains.
Prog
Fish­
Culturist
40(
4):
138­
142.

Kaya
CM,
Kaeding
LR,
Burkhalter
DE.
1977.
Use
of
a
cold­
water
refuge
by
rainbow
and
brown
trout
in
a
geothermally
heated
stream.
Prog
Fish­
Culturist
39(
1):
37­
39.

Kellogg
R,
Gift
JJ.
1983.
Relationship
between
optimum
temperatures
for
growth
and
pr
eferred
temperatures
for
the
young
of
four
fish
species.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
112:
424­
430.

Kelsch
SW.
1996.
Temperature
selection
and
performance
by
bluegills:
Evidence
for
selection
in
response
to
available
power.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
125:
948­
955.

Kelsch
SW,
Neill
WH.
1990.
Temperature
preference
versus
acclimation
in
fishes:
Selection
for
changing
metabolic
optima.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
119:
601­
610.

Kilgour
DM,
McCauley
RW.
1986.
Reconciling
the
two
methods
of
measuring
upper
lethal
temperatures
in
fishes.
Environ
Biol
Fish
17(
4):
281­
290.

Konecki
JT,
Woody
CA,
Quinn
TP.
1993.
Thermal
adaptations
of
Washington
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
populations:
Incubat
ion,
preference
and
tolerance.
School
of
Fisheries,
Cent
er
for
Streamside
Studies,
University
of
Washington
WH­
10,
Seattle,
WA.
34
pp.

Konstantinov
AS,
Zdanovich
VV,
Tikhomirov
DG.
1989.
Effect
of
temperature
oscillation
on
the
metabolic
rate
and
energetics
of
young
fish.
J
Ichthyol
29(
6):
1019­
1027.

Kraemer
C.
1994.
Some
observations
on
the
life
history
and
behavior
of
the
native
char,
Dolly
Varden
(
Salvelinus
malma)
and
bull
trout
(
Salvelinus
confluentus)
of
the
North
Puget
Sound
region.
Draft.
Washington
Department
of
Fish
and
Wildlife,
Mill
Creek,
Washington.

Kwain
W.
1975.
Effects
of
temperature
on
development
and
survival
of
rainbow
trout,
Salmo
gairdneri,
in
acid
waters.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
32(
4):
493­
497.

Kwain
W,
McCauley
RW.
1978.
Effects
of
age
and
overh
ead
illumination
on
temperatures
preferred
by
underyearling
rainbow
trout,
Salmo
gairdneri,
in
a
vertical
temperature
gradient.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
35(
11):
1430­
1433.

Larsson
S,
Berglund
I.
1997.
Growth
and
food
consumption
of
0+
Arctic
charr
fed
pelleted
or
natural
food
at
six
different
temperatures.
J
Fish
Biol
50:
230­
242.

Lee
RM.
1980.
Critical
th
ermal
maxima
of
five
trout
species
in
the
southwestern
United
St
ates.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
109:
632­
635.

Lee
RM,
Rinne
JN.
1980.
Critical
thermal
maxima
of
five
trout
species
in
the
southwestern
United
States.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
109(
6):
632­
635.

Leitritz
E,
Lewis
RC.
1976.
Trout
and
salmon
culture.
California
Department
of
Fish
and
Game.
Fish
Bull
164.
197
pp.

Li
HW,
Lamberti
GA,
Pearsons
TN,
Tait
CK,
Li
JL,
Buckhouse
JC.
1994.
Cumulative
effects
of
riparian
disturbances
along
high
desert
trout
streams
of
the
John
Day
Basin,
Oregon.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
123:
627­
640.

Li
HW,
Pearsons
TN,
Tait
CK,
Li
JL,
Gaither
R.
1993.
Approaches
to
evaluate
habitat
improvement
programs
in
streams
of
th
e
John
Day
Basin.
Completion
Report.
Oregon
Cooperative
Fish
ery
Unit,
Depar
tment
of
Fish
eries
and
Wildlife,
Oregon
State
University.
111
pp.
107
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Likens
GA,
Graham
PJ.
1988.
Westslope
cutthroat
trout
in
Montana:
Life
history,
status,
and
management.
Am
Fish
Soc
Symp
4:
53.
FR
34(
2).

Lindsay
RB,
Jonasson
BC,
Schroeder
RK,
Cates
BC.
1989.
Spring
chinook
salmon
in
the
Deschutes
River,
Oregon.
Information
reports
no.
89­
4.
OR
Dept
Fish
Wildlf.
92
p.

Lindsay
RB,
Knox
WJ,
Fl
esher
MW,
Smith
BJ,
Olsen
EA,
Lutz
LS.
198
6.
Stu
dy
of
wild
sprin
g
chinook
salmon
in
the
John
Day
River
system.
1985
Final
Report.
Oregon
Department
of
Fish
an
d
Wildlife.
Bonneville
Power
Administration,
Division
of
Fish
and
Wildlife,
Contract
No.
DE­
A179­
83BP39796,
Project
No.
79­
4.

Linton
TK,
Reid
SD,
Wood
CM.
1997.
The
metaboli
c
costs
an
d
physiologica
l
consequences
to
juven
ile
rainbow
trout
of
a
simulated
summer
warming
scenario
in
th
e
presence
and
absence
of
sublethal
ammon
ia.
Tran
s
Am
Fish
Soc
126:
259­
272.

Lohr
SC,
Byorth
PA,
Kaya
CM,
Dwyer
WP.
1996.
High­
temperature
tolerances
of
fluvial
Arctic
grayling
and
comparisons
with
summer
river
temperatures
of
the
Big
Hole
River,
Montana.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
125:
933­
939.

Macdonald
JS,
Foreman
MGG,
Farrell
T,
Williams
IV,
Grout
J,
Cass
A,
Woodey
JC,
Enzenhofer
H,
Clarke
WC,
Houtman
R,
Donaldson
EM,
Barnes
D.
In
press.
The
influence
of
extreme
water
temperatures
on
migrating
Fraser
River
Sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka)
during
the
1998
spawning
season.
Can
Tech
Rep
Fish
Aquat
Sci.

Macdonald
JS,
Scrivener
JC,
Patterson
DA,
Dixon­
Warren
A.
1998.
Temperatures
in
aquatic
habitats:
the
impacts
of
forest
harvesti
ng
and
th
e
biological
consequences
to
sockeye
salmon
incubation
habitats
in
the
in
terior
of
B.
C.
In:
Brewin
MK,
Monita
DMA,
eds.
Forest­
fish
conference:
Land
management
practices
affecting
aquatic
ecosystems.
Proceedings
of
the
Forest­
Fish
Conf.,
May
1­
4,
1996,
Calgary,
Alberta
Natural
Resources
Canada,
Canadian
Forest
Service,
Northern
Forestry
Centre,
Edmonton,
Alberta.
Inf.
Rep.
NOR­
X­
356.
pp.
313­
324.

Madison
DM,
Horrall
RM,
Stasko
AB,
Hasler
AD.
1972.
Migrating
movements
of
a
dult
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka)
in
coastal
British
Columbia
as
revealed
by
ultrasonic
tracking.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
29:
1025­
1033.

Mahnken
CVW,
Waknitz
FW.
1979.
Factors
affecting
growth
and
survival
of
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
and
chinook
salmon
(
O.
tshawytscha)
in
saltwater
n
et­
pen
s
in
Puget
Sound.
Proc
World
Maricul
Soc
10:
280­
305.

Major
RL,
Mighell
JL.
1967.
Influence
of
Rocky
Reach
Dam
and
the
temperature
of
the
Okanogan
River
on
the
upstream
migration
of
sockeye
salmon.
Fish
Bull
66(
1):
131­
147.

Mallett
JP,
Charles
S,
Persat
H,
Auger
P.
1999.
Growth
modeling
in
accordance
with
daily
water
temperature
in
European
grayling
(
Thymallus
thymallus
L.
).
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
56:
994­
1000.

Marine
KR.
1992.
A
backgr
ound
i
nvesti
gation
an
d
review
of
the
effect
s
of
elevated
water
temperature
on
reproductive
performance
of
adult
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
with
suggestions
for
approaches
to
the
assessment
of
temperature
induced
reproductive
impairment
of
chinook
salmon
stocks
in
the
American
River,
California.
Unpublished
manuscript,
prepared
for
the
American
River
Technical
Advisory
Committee.
Department
of
Wildlife
and
Fisheries
Biology,
University
of
California,
Davis,
CA.

Marine
KR.
1997.
Effects
of
elevated
water
temperature
on
some
aspects
of
the
physiological
and
ecological
performance
of
juvenile
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha):
implications
for
management
of
California's
Central
Valley
salmon
stocks.
MS
thesis,
University
of
California,
Davis,
CA.
71
pp.

Marine
KR,
Cech
JJ
Jr.
1998.
Effects
of
elevated
water
temperatuare
on
some
aspects
of
the
physiological
and
ecological
performance
of
juvenile
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha):
Implica
tions
for
management
of
108
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
California's
chinook
salmon
stocks.
Stream
temperature
monitoring
and
assessment
workshop.
January
12­
14,
1998.
Sacramento,
California.
Forest
Science
Project,
Humboldt
State
University,
Arcata,
CA.

Mather
D,
Silver
CA.
1980.
Statistical
problems
in
studies
of
temperature
preference
of
fishes.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
37:
733­
737.

McCauley
RW.
1958.
Thermal
r
elati
ons
of
geographic
r
aces
of
Salvelinus.
Can
J
Zool
36(
5):
655­
662.

McCauley
R,
Huggins
N.
1975.
Behavioral
thermal
regulation
by
rainbow
trout
in
a
temperature
gradient.
Thermal
Ecology
II,
Proceedings
of
a
Symposium
held
at
Augusta,
Georgia,
April
2­
5,
1975.
pp.
171­
175.

McCauley
RW,
Pond
WL.
1971.
Temperature
selection
of
rainbow
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri)
fingerlings
in
vertical
and
horizontal
gradients.
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
28:
1801­
1804.

McCormick
JH,
Wegn
er
JA.
1981.
Responses
of
largem
outh
bass
from
different
la
titudes
to
elevated
water
temperatures.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
110:
417­
429.

McCullough
DA.
1975.
Bioenergetics
of
three
aquatic
invertebrates
determined
by
radioisotopic
analyses.
Idaho
State
University.
326
pp.

McCullough
DA.
1999.
A
r
eview
and
synth
esis
of
effects
of
alterations
to
the
water
temperatur
e
regime
on
freshwater
life
stages
of
salmonids,
with
special
reference
to
chinook
salmon.
Water
Resource
Assessment,
Columbia
River
Inter­
Tribal
Fish
Commission,
Portland,
OR.
EPA
910­
R­
99­
010.
291
pp.

McCullough
DA,
Minshall
GW,
Cushing
CE.
1979.
Bioenergetics
of
a
stream
"
collector"
organism
Tricorythodes
minutus
(
Insecta:
Ephemeroptera).
Limnol
Oceanogr
24(
1):
45­
58.

McMahon
TE,
Hartman
GF.
1988.
Variation
in
the
degree
of
silvering
of
wild
coho
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
kisutch,
smolts
migrating
seaward
from
Carnation
Cr
eek,
British
Columbia.
J
Fish
Biol
32:
825­
833.

McMahon
T,
Zale
A,
Selong
J.
1998.
Growth
and
survival
temperature
criteria
for
bull
trout.
Annual
Report
1998
[
preliminary
draft].
Provided
to
the
National
Council
for
Air
and
Stream
Improvement.
Montana
State
University
and
the
USFWS
Bozeman
Fish
Technology
Center.

McMahon
T,
Zale
A,
Selong
J.
1999.
Growth
and
survival
temperature
criteria
for
bull
trout.
Annual
Report
1999
(
year
two)
[
preliminary
draft].
Provided
to
the
National
Council
for
Air
and
Stream
Improvement.
Montana
State
University
and
the
USFWS
Bozeman
Fish
Technology
Center.

McPhail
JD,
Murray
CB.
1979.
The
early
life­
history
and
ecology
of
Dolly
Varden
(
Salvelinus
malma)
in
the
Upper
Arrow
Lakes.
A
report
submitted
to
the
B.
C.
Hydro
and
Power
Authority
and
Kootenay
Region
Fish
and
Wildlife.
University
of
British
Columbia,
Vancouver.

Metcalfe
NB,
Thorpe
JE.
1992.
Anorexia
and
defended
energy
levels
in
over­
wintering
juvenile
salmon.
J
Animal
Ecol
61:
175­
181.

Milligan
CL,
Hooke
GB,
John
son
C.
2000.
Sustained
swimming
at
low
vel
ocity
following
a
bout
of
exh
austive
exercise
enhances
metabolic
recovery
in
rainbow
trout.
J
Exp
Biol
203:
921­
926.

Moyle
PB.
1976.
Inland
fishes
of
California.
Univ
CA
Press.
Berkeley,
CA:
University
of
California
Press.
405
pp.

Mullan
JW,
Williams
KR,
Rhodus
G,
Hillman
TW,
McIntyre
JD.
1992.
Production
and
habitat
of
salmonids
in
Mid­
Columbia
River
tributary
streams.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
Monograph
I.
109
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Murphy
ML.
1998.
Primary
production.
In:
Naiman
RJ,
Bilby
RE,
eds.
River
ecology
and
management:
Lessons
from
the
Pacific
coastal
ecoregion.
New
York:
Springer­
Verlag,

Murphy
ML,
Hall
JD.
1981.
Vari
ed
effects
of
cl
ear­
cut
logging
on
pr
edator
s
and
thei
r
ha
bitat
in
sm
all
streams
of
the
Cascade
Mountains,
Oregon.
Can
J
Fish
Aquatic
Sci
38:
137­
145.

Murray
CB,
Beacham
TD.
1986.
Effect
of
var
ying
temperatur
e
regimes
on
the
development
of
pink
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
gorbuscha)
eggs
and
alevins.
Can
J
Zool
64:
670­
676.

Murray
CB,
McPhail
JD.
1988.
Effect
of
incubation
temperature
on
the
development
of
five
species
of
Pacific
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus)
embryos
and
alevins.
Can
J
Zool
66(
1):
266­
273.

Myrick
CA,
Cech
JJ,
Jr.
2000.
Temperature
influences
on
California
rainbow
trout
physiological
performance.
Fish
Physiol
Biochem
22:
245­
254.

National
Academy
of
Sciences
(
NAS).
1972.
Water
quality
criteria.
Freshwater
aquatic
life
and
wildlife.
Appendix
II.
EPA
Ecol
Res
Series.
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Washington,
DC.
EPA­
R3­
73­
033.
594
pp.

National
Marine
Fisheries
Service
(
NMFS).
1999.
Passage
of
juvenile
and
adult
salmonids
past
Columbia
and
Snake
River
dams.
White
paper.
Northwest
Fisheries
Science
Center,
Seattle,
WA.

Neitzel
DA,
Becker
CD.
1985.
Tolerance
of
eggs,
embryos,
and
alevins
of
chinook
salmon
to
temperature
changes
and
reduced
humidity
in
dewatered
redds.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
114(
2):
267­
273.

Nielsen
JL,
Lisle
TE,
Ozaki
V.
1994.
Thermally
stratified
pools
and
their
use
by
steelhead
in
northern
California
streams.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
123:
613­
626.

Northwest
Power
Planning
Council
(
NPPC).
1999.
Report
of
the
Independen
t
Scientific
Advisory
Board,
Review
of
the
U.
S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers
Capital
Construction
Program.
ISAB
Report
99­
2.
http://
www.
nwppc.
org/
isab_
99­
2.
htm
Odum
EP.
1968.
Energy
flow
in
ecosystems:
A
historical
review.
Am
Zool
8:
11­
18.

Olson
PA,
Foster
RF.
1955.
Temperature
tolerance
of
eggs
and
young
of
Columbia
River
chinook
salmon.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
85:
203­
207.

Olson
PA,
Nakatani
RE.
1969.
Effects
of
chronic
variable
water
temperatures
on
survival
and
growth
of
young
chinook
salmon.
In:
Biological
Effects
of
Thermal
Discharges:
Annual
Progress
Report
for
1968.
Battelle
Memorial
Institute.
Richland,
WA
USAEC
Research
and
Development
Report
No.
BNWL
1050.

Oregon
Department
of
Environmental
Quality
(
ODEQ).
1995
.
1992­
1994
water
quality
standards
r
eview
for
temperature.
Final
Issue
Paper.
Portland,
OR.
77
pp.

Orsi
JJ.
1971.
Thermal
shock
and
upper
lethal
temperature
tolerances
of
young
king
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha,
from
the
Sacramento­
San
Joaquin
River
system.
Californi
a
Department
of
Fish
and
Game,
Anadromous
Fisheries
Branch
Administrative
Report
No.
71­
11.
16
p.

Parker
FL,
Krenkel
PA.
1969.
Ther
mal
pollut
ion.
Status
of
the
art
repor
t.
Report
Number
3,
Department
of
Environmental
and
Water
Resources
Engineering,
Vanderbilt
University,
Nashville,
TN.
Prepared
for
the
Federal
Water
Pollution
Control
Administration.
Grant
No.
WP­
01387­
01.
110
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Pauley
GP,
et
al.
1989.
Species
profiles:
Life
histories
and
environmental
requirements
of
coastal
fishes
and
invertebrates
(
Pacific
Northwest)
Sea­
run
cutthroat
trout.
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service
Biol
Rep
82(
11.86).
U.
S.
Army
Corps
of
Engineers
TR
EL­
82­
4.
21
pp.

Paulik
GJ,
DeLacy
AC,
Stacy
EF.
1957.
The
effect
of
rest
on
the
swimming
performan
ce
of
fatigued
adult
silver
salmon.
University
of
Washington,
School
of
Fisheries,
Technical
Report
No.
31,
pp.
1­
24.

Peterson
RH,
Martin­
Robichaud
DJ.
1989.
First
feeding
of
Atlantic
Salmon
(
Salmo
salar
L.)
fry
as
influenced
by
temperature
regime.
Aquaculture
78(
1):
35­
53.

Piper
RG,
McElwain
IB,
Orme
LE,
McCraren
JP,
Fowler
LG,
Leonard
JR.
1982.
Fish
hatchery
management.
U.
S.
Department
of
the
Interior
Fisheries
and
Wildlife
Service.
Washington
DC.
517
pp.

Pratt
KL.
1992.
A
review
of
bull
trout
life
history.
In:
Howell
P,
Buchanan
D,
eds.
Proceedings
of
the
Gearhart
Mountain
Bull
Trout
Workshop.
Oregon
Chaper
of
the
American
Fisheries
Society,
1992.

Preall
RJ,
Ringler
NH.
1989.
Comparison
of
actual
and
potential
growth
rates
of
brown
trout
(
Salmo
trutta)
in
natural
streams
based
on
bioenergetic
models.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
46:
1067­
1076.

Priede
IG.
1985.
Metabolic
scope
in
fishes.
In:
Tytler
P,
Calow
P,
eds.
Fish
energetics
 
New
perspectives.
Baltimore,
MD:
The
John
Hopkins
University
Press,
pp.
33­
64.

Quinn
TP,
Hodgson
S,
Peven
C.
1997.
Tem
perature,
flow,
and
th
e
migr
ation
of
adult
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch)
in
the
Columbia
River.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
54:
1349­
1360.

Raleigh
RF,
Miller
WF,
Nelson
PC.
1986.
Habitat
suitability
index
models
and
in
stream
flow
suitability
curves:
chinook
salmon.
US
Fish
Wildlf.
Serv
Biol
Rep
82(
10.122).
64
pp.

Rand
PS,
Hinch
SG.
1998.
Swim
speeds
and
energy
use
of
upriver­
migrating
sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka):
Simulating
metabolic
power
and
assessing
risk
of
energy
depletion.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
55:
1832­
1841.

Ratliff
DE.
1992.
Bull
trout
i
nvestigations
in
the
Metolius
River­
Lake
Billy
Chinook
system.
In:
Howell
P,
Buchanan
D,
eds.
Proceedings
of
the
Gearhart
Mountain
Bull
Trout
Workshop.
Oregon
Chapter
of
the
American
Fisheries
Society.

Redding
JM,
Schreck
CB.
1979.
Possible
adaptive
significance
of
certain
enzyme
polymorphisms
in
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri).
J
Fish
Res
Bd
Can
36:
544­
551.

Reisenbichler
RR,
Rubin
SP.
1999.
Genetic
changes
from
artificial
propagation
of
Pacific
salmon
affect
the
productivity
and
viability
of
supplemented
populations.
ICES
J
Marine
Sci
6:
459­
466.

Reiser
DW,
Bjornn
TC.
1979.
Habitat
requirements
of
anadromous
salmonids.
Gen
Tech
Rep
PNW­
96.
USDA
Forest
Service.
Pacific
Northwest
Forest
and
Range
Experiment
Station.
Portland,
OR.
54
pp.

Rice
GV.
1960.
Use
of
coldwater
holding
facilities
in
conjunction
with
king
salmon
spawning
operations
at
Nimbus
Hatchery.
Inland
Fisheries
Administrative
Report
Number
60
3.

Richardson
JS.
1993.
Limits
to
prod
uctivi
ty
in
streams:
Evidence
fr
om
studies
of
macroin
vertebr
ates.
In:
Gibson
RJ,
Cutting
RE,
eds.
Production
of
juvenile
Atlantic
salmon,
Salmo
salar,
in
natural
waters.
Canada
Department
of
Fisheries
and
Oceans,
Ottawa.

Ricker
WE,
ed.
1968.
Methods
for
assessment
of
fish
production
in
fresh
waters.
IBP
Handbook
No.
3.
Oxford:
Blackwell
Scientific
Publications.
328
pp.
111
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Rieman
BE,
Chandler
GL.
1999.
Empirical
evaluation
of
temperature
effects
on
bull
trout
distribution
in
the
Northwest.
Draft
Report.
Contract
No.
12957242­
01­
0.
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Boise,
ID.
32
p.

Rieman
BE,
Thurow
DC,
Thurow
RF.
1997.
Distribution,
status
and
likely
future
trends
of
bull
trout
within
the
Columbia
River
and
Klamath
River
basins.
N
Am
J
Fish
Manag
17:
1111­
1125.

Rombough
PJ.
1988.
Gr
owth,
aerobic
metabolism,
and
dissolved
oxygen
requiremen
ts
of
embr
yos
and
a
levin
s
of
steelhead,
Salmo
gairdneri.
Can
J
Zool
66:
651­
660.

Roper
BB,
Scarnecchia
DL.
1999.
Emigration
of
age­
0
chinook
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
tshawytscha)
smolt
s
from
the
upper
South
Umpqua
River
basin,
Oregon,
USA.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
56:
939­
946.

Sadler
SE,
Friars
GW,
Ihssen
PE
.
1986
.
The
influence
of
temperatur
e
and
genotype
on
th
e
growth
rate
of
hatchery­
reared
salmonids.
Can
J
Anim
Sci
66:
599­
606.

Sandercock
FK.
1991.
Life
history
of
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch).
In:
Groot
C,
Margolis
L,
eds.
Pacific
salmon
life
histories.
Vancouver:
UBC
Press,
pp.
395­
445.

Sauter
ST,
Maule
AG.
1997.
The
role
of
water
temperature
in
the
smolt
physiology
of
chinook
salmon.
Presentation
given
at
the
Columbia/
Snake
River
mainstem
water
temperature
workshop.
Integrated
ecosystem
management
of
the
Colum
bia
River
ba
sin.
November
6­
7,
1997.
Portland
Sta
te
University,
Port
land,
OR.

Schreck
CB,
Snelling
JC,
Ewing
RE,
Bradford
CS,
Davis
LE,
Slater
CH.
1994.
Migratory
behavior
of
adult
spring
chinook
salmon
in
the
Willamette
River
and
its
tributaries.
Oregon
Cooperative
Fishery
Research
Unit,
Oregon
State
University,
Corvallis,
Oregon.
Pr
oject
Number
88­
160­
3,
Prepa
red
for
Bonneville
Power
Administra
tion,
Portland,
OR.

Scott
WB,
Crossman
EJ.
1973.
Freshwater
fishes
of
Canada.
Bulletin
184.
Fish
Res
Bd
Can,
Ottawa.

Scuton
DA,
Clarke
KD,
Cole
LJ.
1998.
Water
temperature
dynamics
in
small
forest
ed
headwater
streams
of
Newfoundland,
Canada:
Quantification
of
thermal
brook
trout
habitat
to
address
initial
effects
of
forest
harvesting.
In:
Brewin
MK,
Monita
DMA,
eds.
Forest­
fish
conference:
Land
management
practices
affecting
aquatic
ecosystems.
Proceedings
of
th
e
Forest­
Fish
Conference,
May
1­
4,
1996,
Calgar
y,
Alberta
Natural
Resources
Canada,
Canadian
Forest
Service,
Northern
Forestry
Centre,
Edmonton,
Alberta.
Inf.
Rep.
NOR­
X­
356.
pp.
325­
336.

Servizi
JA,
Jensen
JOT.
1977.
Resistance
of
adult
sockeye
salmon
to
acute
thermal
shock.
Progress
report
no.
34.
International
Pacific
Salmon
Fisheries
Commission,
British
Columbia,
Canada
.
51
pp.

Seymour
AH.
1956.
Effects
of
temperature
upon
young
chinook
salmon.
PhD
thesis,
University
of
Washington,
Seattle,
WA.
127
pp.

Shepard
BB.
2000.
Fisheries
biologist,
Mon
tana
Fish
,
Wildlife,
and
Parks.
Bozeman
Mon
tana.
Con
versation
with
Shelley
Spalding
(
U.
S.
Fish
and
Wildlife
Service),
June
15,
2000.

Shepard
BB,
Fraley
JJ,
Weaver
TM,
Grah
am
P.
1982.
Flathead
River
fisheries
study.
Montana
Department
of
Fish,
Wildlife
and
Parks,
Kalispell.

Siemien
MJ,
Carline
RF.
1991.
Effect
of
temperature
on
growth
of
first­
feeding
Atlantic
salmon
fry.
Progr
Fish­
Culturist
53:
11­
14.

Smith
CE,
Dwyer
WP,
Piper
RG.
1983.
Effect
of
water
tem
perature
on
egg
q
uali
ty
of
cutth
roat
trout
.
Prog
Fish­
Cult
45(
3):
176­
178.
112
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Snake
River
Subbasin
Plan
.
1990
.
Sna
ke
River
subbasin
(
Mainstem
from
mouth
to
Hells
Canyon
Dam).
Salmon
and
steelhead
pr
oduction
plan.
September
1,
1990.
Northwest
Power
Plann
ing
Council
an
d
Columbia
Basin
Fish
and
Wildlife
Au
thori
ty,
Portland,
OR.

Snieszko
SF.
1974.
The
effects
of
environmental
stress
on
outbrea
ks
of
infectious
diseases
of
fish
es.
J
Fish
Biol
6:
197­
208.

Sonski
AJ.
1984.
Comparison
of
heat
tolerances
of
redband
trout,
Firehole
River
rainbow
trout,
and
Wytheville
rainbow
trout.
Annu
Proc
Tex
Chap
Am
Fish
Soc
6:
27­
35.

Sonski
AJ.
1983a.
Heat
tolerance
of
redband
trout.
Annu
Proc
Tex
Chap
Am
Fish
Soc
5:
66­
76.

Sonski
AJ.
1983b.
Cultur
e
of
redband
tr
out
at
a
warm­
water
hatchery.
Pr
oceedings
of
Fish
Farming
Conference
and
Annual
Convention
of
Catfish
Farmers
of
Texas.
Texas
A&
M
University.
pp.
21­
40.

Spence
BC,
Lomnicky
GA,
Hughes
RM,
Novitzki
RP.
1996.
An
ecosystem
approach
to
salmonid
conservation.
TR­
4501­
96­
6057.
Man
Tech
En
vironmental
Research
Services
Cor
poration,
Corvallis,
OR.

Stabler
DF.
1981.
Effects
of
altered
flow
regimes,
temperatures,
and
river
impoundment
on
a
dult
steelhead
trout
and
chinook
salmon.
MS
thesis,
University
of
Idaho,
Moscow,
ID.
84
pp.

Stauffer
JR
Jr.
1980.
Influence
of
temperature
on
fish
behavior.
In:
Hocutt
CH,
Stauffer
JR
Jr,
Edinger
JE,
Hall
LW
Jr,
Morgan
RP
II,
eds.
Power
plan
ts.
Effects
on
fish
and
shellfish
behavior.
New
York:
Academic
Press,
pp.
103­
141.

Stauffer
JR
Jr,
Melisky
EL,
Hocutt
CH.
1984.
Interrelationships
among
preferred,
avoided,
and
lethal
temperatures
of
three
fish
species.
Arch
Hydrobiol
100(
2):
159­
169.

Stonecypher
RW
Jr,
Hubert
WA,
Gern
WA.
1994.
Effect
of
reduced
incubation
temperatures
on
survival
of
trout
embryos.
Prog
Fish­
Cult
56:
180­
184.

Sulli
van
K,
Mart
in
DJ,
Cardwell
RD,
Toll
JE,
Duke
S.
2000.
An
analysis
of
th
e
effects
of
tem
perature
on
salmonids
of
the
Pacific
Northwest
with
implications
for
selecting
temperature
criteria.
Sustainable
Ecosystems
Institute,
Portland,
Oregon.
Available
at
www.
sei.
org.

Tang
J,
Bryant
MD,
Brannon
EL.
1987.
Effect
of
temperature
extremes
on
the
mortality
an
d
development
rates
of
coho
salmon
embryos
and
alevins.
Prog
Fish­
Cult
49(
3):
167­
174.

Taranger
GL,
Hansen
T.
1993.
Ovulation
and
egg
survival
following
exposure
of
Atlantic
salmon,
Salmo
salar
L.,
broodstock
to
different
water
temperatur
es.

Taylor
BR,
Barton
BA.
1992.
Temperature
and
dissolved
oxygen
criteria
for
Alberta
fishes
in
flowing
waters.
Prepared
for
Alberta
Fish
and
Wildlife
Division,
Edmonton,
Alberta,
by
Environmental
Management
Associates,
Calgary,
Alberta.
72
pp.

Thedinga
JF,
Koski
KV.
1984.
The
production
of
coho
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
kisutch,
smolts
and
adults
from
Porcupine
Creek.
In:
Meehan
WR,
Merrell
TR
Jr,
Hanley
TA,
eds.
Fish
and
wildlife
relationships
in
old­
growth
forests;
proceedin
gs
of
a
symposium.
Juneau,
Alaska,
12­
15
April
1982.
American
Inst
itute
of
Fisher
y
Research
Biologists,
Morehead
City,
NC.
pp.
99­
108.

Thomas
RE,
Ghar
rett
JA,
Carls
MG,
Rice
SD,
Moles
A,
Kor
n
S.
1986.
Effects
of
fluctuating
temperature
on
mortality,
stress,
and
energy
reserves
of
juvenile
coho
salmon.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
15:
52­
59.
113
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Threader
RW,
Houston
AH.
1983.
Heat
tolerance
and
resistance
in
juvenile
rainbow
trout
acclimated
to
diurnally
cycling
temperatures.
Comp
Biochem
Physiol
75A:
153­
155.

Thyrel
M,
Berglund
I,
Larsson
S,
Näslund
I.
1999.
Upper
thermal
limits
for
feeding
and
growth
of
0+
Arctic
charr.
J
Fish
Biol
55:
199­
210.

Tiffan
KF,
Garland
RD,
Wagner
PG.
1996.
Osmoregulatory
performance,
m
igra
tion
behavior,
and
marking
of
subyearling
chinook
salmon
at
McNary
Dam
to
estimate
adult
contribution.
In:
Rondorf
DW,
Tiffan
KF,
eds.
Identifica
tion
of
the
spawning,
rearin
g,
and
m
igratory
requirements
of
fall
chinook
salmon
in
the
Columbia
River
basin.
1994
Annual
report
to
Bonneville
Power
Administration,
Portland,
OR.
Contract
DE­
AI79­
91BP21708.
pp.
99­
128.

Trotter
P.
1989.
Coastal
cutthroat
trout:
A
life
history
compendium.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
118:
463­
473.

U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency
and
National
Marine
Fisheries
Service
(
EPA
and
NMFS).
1971.
Columbia
River
Thermal
Effects
Study.
Volume
1.
Biological
Effects
Study.
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency
and
National
Marine
Fisheries
Service.
102
pp.

Vannote
RL,
Minshall
GW,
Cummins
KW,
Sedell
JR,
Cushing
CE.
1980.
The
river
continuum
concept.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
37:
130­
137.

Velsen
FPJ.
19
87.
Temperatur
e
and
incubation
in
Pa
cific
salmon
and
rainbow
trout:
Compilation
of
data
on
median
hatching
time,
mortality,
and
embryonic
staging.
Can
Data
Rep.

Venditti
DA,
Rondorf
DW,
Kraut
JM.
2000.
Migratory
behavior
and
forebay
delay
of
radio­
tagged
juvenile
fall
chinook
salmon
in
a
lower
Snake
River
impoundment.
N
Am
J
Fish
Manage
20:
41­
52.

Vigg
S,
Watkins
DL.
1991.
Temperatur
e
contr
ol
and
flow
augmentation
to
enh
ance
spawning
migra
tion
of
salmonids
in
th
e
Snake
River,
especially
fall
chinook
salmon.
Unpublished
manuscr
ipt.
Bonn
eville
Power
Administration,
Portlan
d,
OR.
11
pp.

Vigg
SC,
Koch
DL.
1980.
Upper
lethal
temperature
range
of
Lahontan
cutthroat
trout
in
waters
of
different
ionic
concentration.
Trans
Am
Fish
Soc
109(
3):
336­
339.

Warren
CE.
1971.
Biology
and
water
pollution
control.
Philadelphia:
W.
B.
Saunders.
434
pp.

Weaver
TM,
White
RG.
1985.
Coal
Creek
fisheries
monitoring
study
No.
III.
Quarterly
progress
report.
Montana
State
Cooperative
Fisheries
Research
Unit,
Bozeman.

Wedemeyer
GA.
1980.
Effects
of
environmental
stressors
in
aquacultural
systems
on
quality,
smoltification
and
early
marine
survival
of
anadromous
fish.
Proceedings,
No.
Pac.
Aquaculture
Symposium,
Anchorage,
Alaska.

Wedemeyer
GA,
McLeay
DJ.
1981.
Methods
for
determining
the
tolerance
of
fishes
to
environmental
stressors.
In:
Pickering
AD,
ed.
Stress
and
fish.
London:
Academic
Press,
pp.
247­
275.

Wedemeyer
GA,
Saunders
RL,
Clarke
WC.
1980.
Environmental
factors
affecting
smoltification
and
early
marine
survival
of
anadromous
salmonids.
Mar
Fish
Rev
42
(
6):
1­
14.

Welch
DW,
Chigir
insky
AI,
Ish
ida
Y.
1995.
Upper
thermal
lim
its
on
the
ocea
nic
distr
ibution
of
Paci
fic
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
spp.)
in
the
spring.
Can
J
Fish
Aquat
Sci
52:
489­
503.

Wilson
WJ,
Kelley
MD,
Meyer
PR.
1987.
Instream
temperature
modeling
and
fish
impact
assessment
for
a
proposed
large­
scale
Alaska
hydro­
electric
project.
In:
Craig
JF,
Kemper
JB,
eds.
Regulated
streams.
New
York:
Plenum
Press,
pp.
183­
206.
114
Summary
of
Technical
Literature
Examining
the
Physiological
Effects
of
Temperature
Woodey
JC,
Enzen
hofer
H,
Clarke
WC,
Houtman
R,
Donaldson
EM,
Barnes
D.
In
Pr
ess.
Th
e
influence
of
extreme
water
temperatures
on
migrating
Fraser
River
Sockeye
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
nerka)
during
the
1998
spawning
season.
Can
Tech
Rep
Fish
Aquat
Sci.

Wurtsbaugh
WA,
Davis
GE.
1977.
Effects
of
temperatur
e
and
ration
level
on
the
growth
and
food
con
version
efficien
cy
of
Salmo
gairdneri,
Richardson.
J
Fish
Biol
11:
87­
98.
Wydoski
RS,
Whitney
RR.
1979.
Inland
fishes
of
Washington.
Seattle:
University
of
Washington
Press.

Zaugg
WS.
1981.
Relationships
between
smolt
indices
and
migration
in
controlled
and
natural
environments.
In:
Brannon
EL,
Salo
EO,
eds.
Proceedings
of
the
Salmon
and
Trout
Migratory
Behavior
Symposium.
University
of
Washington,
Seattle.
pp.
173­
183.

Zaugg
WS,
McLain
LR.
1976.
In
fluence
of
water
temperature
on
gill
sodium,
potassium­
stimulated
ATPase
activity
in
juvenile
coho
salmon
(
Oncorhynchus
kisutch).
Comp
Biochem
Physiol
54A:
419­
421.

Zaugg
WS,
Wagner
HH.
1973.
Gill
ATPase
activity
related
to
parr­
smolt
transformation
and
migration
in
steelhead
trout
(
Salmo
gairdneri):
In
fluence
of
photoperiod
and
temperat
ure.
Comp
Biochem
Physiol
45B:
955­
965.

Zinichev
VV,
Zotin,
AI.
1987.
Selected
temperature
and
optimums
for
development
in
prola
rvae
and
la
rvae
of
chum
salmon,
Oncorhynchus
keta.
J
Ichthyol
27:
6:
141­
144.
