_______________________________________________________________________________________________

Science
for
Solutions
_______________________________________________________________________________________________

NOAA
COASTAL
OCEAN
PROGRAM
Decision
Analysis
Series
No.
12
Guidelines
for
the
Conservation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrasses
in
the
United
States
and
Adjacent
Waters
Mark
S.
Fonseca,
W.
Judson
Kenworthy,
and
Gordon
W.
Thayer
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Administration
National
Marine
Fisheries
Service
Southeast
Fisheries
Science
Center
Beaufort
Laboratory
101
Pivers
Island
Road
Beaufort,
North
Carolina
28516­
9722
November
1998
U.
S.
DEPARTMENT
OF
COMMERCE
William
H.
Daley,
Secretary
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Administration
D.
James
Baker,
Under
Secretary
Coastal
Ocean
Office
David
Johnson,
Acting
Director
This
publication
should
be
cited
as:

Fonseca,
Mark
S.,
et
al.
1998.
Guidelines
for
the
Conservation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrasses
in
the
United
States
and
Adjacent
Waters.
NOAA
Coastal
Ocean
Program
Decision
Analysis
Series
No.
12.
NOAA
Coastal
Ocean
Office,
Silver
Spring,
MD.
222
pp.

This
publication
does
not
constitute
an
endorsement
of
any
commercial
product
or
intend
to
be
an
opinion
beyond
scientific
or
other
results
obtained
by
the
National
Oceanic
and
Atmospheric
Adminisstration
(
NOAA).
No
reference
shall
be
made
to
NOAA,
or
this
publication
furnished
by
NOAA,
in
any
advertising
or
sales
promotion
which
would
indicate
or
imply
that
NOAA
recommends
or
endorses
any
proprietary
product
mentioned
herein,
or
which
has
as
its
purpose
an
interest
to
cause
directly
or
indirectly
the
advertised
product
to
be
used
or
purchased
because
of
this
publication.
Note
to
Readers
Guidelines
for
the
Conservation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrasses
in
the
United
States
and
Adjacent
Waters
was
developed
by
Mark
Fonseca
of
NOAA's
Beaufort
Laboratory,
along
with
Jud
Kenworthy
and
Gordon
Thayer,
with
funding
from
NOAA's
Coastal
Ocean
Program.
The
document
presents
an
overview
of
the
current
state
of
seagrass
conservation
and
restoration
in
the
United
States,
discusses
important
issues
that
should
be
addressed
in
planning
seagrass
restoration
projects,
describes
different
planting
methodologies,
proposes
monitoring
criteria
and
means
for
evaluating
success,
and
discusses
issues
faced
by
resource
managers.

The
Coastal
Ocean
Program
(
COP)
provides
a
focal
point
through
which
NOAA,
together
with
other
organizations
with
responsibilities
for
the
coastal
environment
and
its
resources,
can
make
significant
strides
toward
finding
solutions
to
critical
problems.
By
working
together
toward
these
solutions
we
can
ensure
the
sustainability
of
these
coastal
resources
and
allow
for
compatible
economic
development
that
will
enhance
the
well­
being
of
the
Nation
now
and
in
future
generations.
The
goals
of
the
program
parallel
those
of
the
NOAA
Strategic
Plan.

A
specific
objective
of
the
COP
is
to
provide
the
highest
quality
scientific
information
to
coastal
managers
in
time
for
critical
decision
making
and
in
formats
useful
for
these
decisions.
To
help
achieve
this,
the
COP
inaugurated
a
program
of
developing
documents
that
would
synthesize
information
on
issues
that
were
of
high
priority
to
coastal
managers.
As
a
contribution
to
the
Decision
Analysis
Series,
this
report
provides
a
critical
synthesis
of
the
methods
for
planning,
planting,
monitoring,
and
evaluating
seagrass
restoration
projects.
A
list
of
available
documents
in
the
Decision
Analysis
Series
can
be
found
on
the
inside
back
cover.

As
with
all
of
its
products,
the
COP
is
very
interested
in
ascertaining
the
utility
of
the
Decision
Analysis
Series,
particularly
in
regard
to
its
application
to
the
management
decision
process.
Therefore,
we
encourage
you
to
write,
fax,
call,
or
E­
mail
us
with
your
comments.
Please
be
assured
that
we
will
appreciated
these
comments,
either
positive
or
negative,
and
that
they
will
help
us
direct
our
future
efforts.
Our
address
and
telephone
and
fax
numbers
are
on
the
inside
front
cover.
My
Internet
address
is
COASTALOCEAN@
COP.
NOAA.
GOV.

David
Johnson
Acting
Director
NOAA
Coastal
Ocean
Program
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iv
v
LIST
OF
FIGURES
AND
TABLES.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
ix
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
xi
CHAPTER
1:
BACKGROUND
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
What
Are
Seagrasses?
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
Defining
Seagrass
Habitat
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
8
Spatial
Scale
and
Its
Role
in
Defining
Seagrass
Habitat
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
Vulnerability
and
Susceptibility
of
Seagrass
Ecosystems
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
15
Historical
Impacts
and
Losses
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
16
A
Short
History
of
Seagrass
Mitigation
and
Restoration
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
21
Management
Context
for
Mitigation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrass
Ecosystems
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
24
Pitfalls
in
the
Mitigation
and
Restoration
Process
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
26
Regional
Breakdown
of
Permit
Activities
Dealing
with
Seagrass
Mitigation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
27
Northeast
(
NE)
Region
(
Maine
through
Virginia)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
28
Southeast
(
SE)
Region
(
North
Carolina
through
Texas
including
the
U.
S.
Virgin
Islands
and
Puerto
Rico)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
28
Northwest
(
NW)
and
Alaska
Regions
(
Oregon,
Washington
and
Alaska)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
30
Southwest
(
SW)
Region
(
California,
Hawaii
and
Pacific
Territories)
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
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.
.
.
30
Comparative
Analysis
of
Seagrass
Planting
Efforts
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
30
Are
Planted
Seagrass
Beds
Functionally
Equivalent
to
Naturally­
Occurring
Beds?
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
.
.
46
CHAPTER
2:
PLANNING
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
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.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
53
Pre­
Project
Planning
Considerations:
Importance
of
Genetic
Diversity
in
Seagrass
Populations
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
53
More
Pre­
Project
Planning
Considerations:
Seagrass
Bed
Spatial
Requirements
and
Planting
Site
Surveys
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
59
Planning
for
Execution
of
a
Planting
Project
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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61
Identification
of
Project
Goals
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61
Table
of
Contents
_______________________________________________________________________________
vi
°
Guidelines
for
the
Conservation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrasses
Pre­
Construction
Planning
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61
Southern
California
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64
Chesapeake
Bay.
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64
Connecticut
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64
Assessment
of
Interim
Losses
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66
Pre­
Impact
and
Pre­
Planting
Surveys:
Identifying
Presence,
Absence
and
Reasons
for
Absence
of
Seagrass
Coverage
.
.
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67
Minimum
Size
to
Justify
Pre­
Planting
Monitoring
.
.
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70
Planting
Site
Selection
and
Off­
site
Vs.
On­
Site
planting
.
.
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70
Engineered
Sites
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71
Channel
Plantings,
Effects
of
Structures
and
Other
Human
Activities
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72
Constraints
Imposed
by
Physical
Setting
on
Planting
Operations
.
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73
Emersion
Effects
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77
Bioturbation
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79
Sediment
Thickness
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81
Sediment
Stability:
Erosion
and
Burial
of
Seagrass
Shoots
.
.
.
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.
81
Possibility
of
Natural
Recolonization
.
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82
Nutrient
Requirements
for
Transplanting
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83
Light
Requirements
for
Transplanting
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90
Salinity
and
Temperature
Requirements
for
Transplanting
.
.
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.
96
Micropropagation
and
Laboratory
Culture
of
Seagrass
for
Planting
.
.
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.
.
99
Wild
Stock
Selection,
Availability,
and
Performance
.
.
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101
Long­
Term
Management
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105
Planting
Contingencies
by
Ecological
Region
.
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106
Northeast
Region
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106
Mid­
Atlantic
Region
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107
Gulf
of
Mexico
and
the
Florida
East
Coast
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107
South
Florida
and
the
Caribbean
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108
Conterminous
West
Coast
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108
Alaska
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109
Hawaii
and
Pacific
Territories
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109
CHAPTER
3:
PLANTING
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111
Methods
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111
Plug
Methods
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113
Staple
Method
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114
Peat
Pot
Method
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115
Other
Methods
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122
Fertilizer
Effects
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125
Spacing
of
Planting
Units
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126
Quiescent
Settings
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126
Wave­
Exposed
or
High
Current
Speed
Settings
.
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126
CHAPTER
4:
MONITORING
AND
EVALUATING
SUCCESS
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129
Terminology
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129
Monitoring
Specifications
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130
Survival
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130
Areal
Coverage
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130
Number
of
Shoots
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131
Monitoring
Frequency
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132
Interpretation
of
Monitoring
Data
.
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134
Real
Cost
of
Seagrass
Transplanting
.
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135
CHAPTER
5:
MANAGER'S
SUMMARY
.
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139
No­
Net­
Loss
of
Wetlands
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139
Seagrass
Ecosystems
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139
Value
and
Function
of
Seagrass
Habitat
.
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140
Loss
of
Seagrass
Habitat.
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140
Mitigation
as
a
Management
Tool.
.
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140
Special
Planning
Considerations
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142
Preserving
Genetic
Diversity
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142
Site
Surveys
Prior
to
Impact
.
.
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143
Identify
Project
Goals
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143
Permit
Corodination
Protocols
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143
Interim
Loss
Assessment
.
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144
Site
Surveys
.
.
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144
Site
Selection
.
.
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144
Obtaining
Transplant
Stock
.
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145
Planting
Methods
.
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145
Evaluating
Project
Success
.
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146
Monitoring
Planted
Beds
.
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147
Interpreting
Results
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147
Cost
Estimates
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148
Conservation,
Mitigation,
and
Restoration
.
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148
LITERATURE
CITED
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151
Contents
°
vii
viii
°
Guidelines
for
the
Conservation
and
Restoration
of
Seagrasses
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
.
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189
APPENDIX
A:
GLOSSARY
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193
APPENDIX
B:
SEAGRASS
SPECIES
CHARACTERISTICS
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199
APPENDIX
C:
PARTIAL
LIST
OF
EQUIPMENT
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203
Staple
Method
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203
Peat
Pot
Method
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205
Core
Tube
Method
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205
APPENDIX
D:
SUGGESTED
MINIMUM
COMPONENTS
OF
PROPOSALS
AND
REPORTS
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207
A.
Mitigation
Proposal
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207
B.
Time
Zero
Report
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208
C.
Progress
Reports
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208
D.
Final
Project
Report
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208
APPENDIX
E:
EXAMPLE
PROPELLER
AND
MOORING
SCAR
RESTORATION
PLAN
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209
APPENDIX
F.
RECOMMENDATIONS
FOR
FURTHER
READING
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221
ix
Figures
and
Tables
_______________________________________________________________________________

FIGURES
Figure
1.1.
Seagrass
species
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4
Figure
1.2.
Cumulative
bottom
covered
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9
Figure
1.3.
Survey
of
percent
planting
unit
survival
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11
Figure
1.4.
Survey
of
percent
area
covered.
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11
Figure
1.5.
Faunal
abundance
in
planted
seagrass
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44
Figure
1.6.
Aerial
photograph
of
seagrass
bed
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44
Figure
1.7.
Change
in
seagrass
bed
cover
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48
Figure
2.1.
Decision
flow
diagram
for
seagrass
planting
.
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62
Figure
2.2.
Assessing
interim
loss
of
seagrass
habitat
functions
.
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68
Figure
2.3.
Computation
of
replacement
ratio
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68
Figure
2.4.
Seagrass
cover
and
physical
setting
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76
Figure
2.5.
Site
selection
process
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78
Figure
2.6.
Ruppia
in
culture
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102
Figure
2.7.
Recovery
of
donor
beds
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104
Figure
3.1.
Comparison
of
plugs,
cores,
peat
pots
and
staples.
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113
Figure
3.2.
Staple
method
of
seagrass
planting
.
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116
Figure
3.3.
Planting
technique
using
flat
biodegradable
sticks
.
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118
Figure
3.4.
Planting
technique
using
round
biodegradable
sticks
.
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118
Figure
3.5.
Peat
pot
method
of
seagrass
planting
.
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120
Figure
3.6.
Line
planting
technique
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123
Figure
3.7.
Remote
planting
method
.
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124
Figure
3.8
Computing
row
spacing
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127
Figure
4.1.
Sequencing
of
the
seagrass
planting
success
criteria.
.
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133
TABLES
Table
1.1.
List
of
seagrass
species
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3
Table
1.2.
Chesapeake
Bay
SAV
habitat
requirements
.
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17
Table
1.3.
Percent
of
seagrass
planting
documents
by
literature
source.
.
.
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.
.
.
32
Table
1.4.
Percentage
of
seagrass
field
planting
documents
by
region
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
33
Table
1.5.
Area
and
number
of
planting
units
by
region
and
seagrass
species
.
.
.
34
Table
1.6.
Percentage
of
transplanting
methods
by
region
.
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.
36
Table
1.7.
Percentage
of
transplanting
methods
by
seagrass
species
.
.
.
.
.
.
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.
.
37
Table
1.8.
Experimental
parameters
in
field
planting
studies.
.
.
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.
38
Table
1.9.
Ten
most
common
monitoring
parameters
.
.
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.
39
Table
2.1.
Submersed
aquatic
vegetation
habitat
requirements
.
.
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.
98
x
