TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
Page
No.

5.
INHALATION
ROUTE
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1
5.1.
EXPOSURE
EQUATION
FOR
INHALATION
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1
5.2.
INHALATION
RATE
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5.2.1.
Background
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1
5.2.2.
Key
Inhalation
Rate
Studies
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3
5.2.3.
Relevant
Inhalation
Rate
Studies
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16
5.2.4.
Recommendations
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22
5.3.
REFERENCES
FOR
CHAPTER
5
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27
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
1
ADD
=
[[
C
x
IR
x
ED]
/
[
BW
x
AT]]
(
Eqn.
5­
1)

where:

ADD
=
average
daily
dose
(
mg/
kg­
day);
C
=
contaminant
concentration
in
inhaled
air
(
F
g/
m
);
3
IR
=
inhalation
rate
(
m
/
day);
3
ED
=
exposure
duration
(
days);
BW
=
body
weight
(
kg);
and
AT
=
averaging
time
(
days),
for
non­
carcinogenic
effects
AT
=
ED,
for
carcinogenic
or
chronic
effects
AT
=
70
years
or
25,550
days
(
lifetime).
5.
INHALATION
ROUTE
This
chapter
presents
data
and
recommendations
for
available.
inhalation
rates
that
can
be
used
to
assess
exposure
to
contaminants
in
air.
The
studies
discussed
in
this
chapter
have
been
classified
as
key
or
relevant.
Key
studies
are
For
those
cases
where
the
average
daily
dose
(
ADD)
used
as
the
basis
for
deriving
recommendations
and
the
needs
to
be
estimated,
the
general
equation
is:
relevant
studies
are
included
to
provide
additional
background
and
perspective.
The
recommended
inhalation
rates
are
summarized
in
Section
5.2.4
and
cover
adults,
children,
and
outdoor
workers/
athletes.
Inclusion
of
this
chapter
in
the
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
does
not
imply
that
assessors
will
always
need
to
select
and
use
inhalation
rates
when
evaluating
exposure
to
air
contaminants.
In
fact,
it
is
unnecessary
to
calculate
inhaled
dose
when
using
dose­
response
factors
from
Integrated
Risk
Information
System
(
IRIS)
(
U.
S.
EPA,
1994).
This
is
due
to
the
fact
that
IRIS
methodology
accounts
for
inhalation
rates
in
the
development
of
"
doseresponse
relationships.
When
using
IRIS
for
inhalation
risk
assessments,
"
dose­
response"
relationships
require
The
average
daily
dose
is
the
dose
rate
averaged
over
only
an
average
air
concentration
to
evaluate
health
a
pathway­
specific
period
of
exposure
expressed
as
a
daily
concerns:
dose
on
a
per­
unit­
body­
weight
basis.
The
ADD
is
used
for
C
For
non­
carcinogens,
IRIS
uses
Reference
effects.
For
compounds
with
carcinogenic
or
chronic
Concentrations
(
RfC)
which
are
expressed
in
effects,
the
lifetime
average
daily
dose
(
LADD)
is
used.
concentration
units.
Hazard
is
evaluated
by
The
LADD
is
the
dose
rate
averaged
over
a
lifetime.
The
comparing
the
inspired
air
concentration
to
the
contaminant
concentration
refers
to
the
concentration
of
the
RfC.
contaminant
in
inhaled
air.
Exposure
duration
refers
to
the
C
For
carcinogens,
IRIS
uses
unit
risk
values
which
are
expressed
in
inverse
concentration
units.
Risk
is
evaluated
by
multiplying
the
unit
risk
by
the
inspired
air
concentration.
The
Agency
defines
exposure
as
the
chemical
Detailed
descriptions
of
the
IRIS
methodology
for
1992).
In
the
case
of
inhalation,
the
situation
is
complicated
derivation
of
inhalation
reference
concentrations
can
be
by
the
fact
that
oxygen
exchange
with
carbon
dioxide
takes
found
in
two
methods
manuals
produced
by
the
Agency
place
in
the
distal
portion
of
the
lung.
The
anatomy
and
(
U.
S.
EPA,
1992;
1994).
physiology
of
the
respiratory
system
diminishes
the
IRIS
employs
a
default
inhalation
rate
of
20
m
/
day.
pollutant
concentration
in
inspired
air
(
potential
dose)
such
3
This
is
greater
than
the
recommendated
value
in
this
that
the
amount
of
a
pollutant
that
actually
enters
the
body
chapter.
When
using
IRIS,
adjustments
of
dose­
response
through
the
lung
(
internal
dose)
is
less
than
that
measured
relationships
using
inhalation
rates
other
than
the
default,
20
at
the
boundary
of
the
body
(
Figure
5­
1).
When
m
/
day,
are
not
currently
recommended.
There
are
constructing
risk
assessments
that
concern
the
inhalation
3
instances
where
the
inhalation
rate
data
presented
in
this
route
of
exposure,
one
must
be
aware
if
any
adjustments
chapter
may
be
used
for
estimating
average
daily
dose.
For
have
been
employed
in
the
estimation
of
the
pollutant
example,
the
inhalatino
average
daily
dose
is
often
concentration
to
account
for
this
reduction
in
potential
dose.
estimated
in
cases
where
a
compative
pathway
analysis
is
desired
or
to
determine
a
total
dose
by
adding
across
The
respiratory
system
is
comprised
of
three
regions:
pathways
in
cases
where
RfCs
and
unit
risk
factors
are
not
5.1.
EXPOSURE
EQUATION
FOR
INHALATION
exposure
to
chemicals
with
non­
carcinogenic
non­
chronic
total
time
an
individual
is
exposed
to
an
air
pollutant.

5.2.
INHALATION
RATE
5.2.1.
Background
concentration
at
the
boundary
of
the
body
(
U.
S.
EPA,

nasopharyngeal,
tracheobronchial,
and
pulmonary.
The
Organ
Chemical
Effect
Exposure
Internal
Dose
Biologically
Effective
Dose
Metabolism
Applied
Dose
Potential
Dose
Lung
Uptake
Mouth
/
Nose
Intake
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
2
August
1997
Figure
5­
1.
Schematic
of
Dose
and
Exposure:
Respiratory
Route
Source:
U.
S.
EPA,
1992.

nasopharyngeal
region
extends
from
the
nose
to
the
larynx.
cross
sectional
area
of
the
lungs.
The
velocity
of
the
The
tracheobronchial
region
forms
the
conducting
airways
airstream
in
this
decreasing
branching
network
creates
a
between
nasopharynx
and
alveoli
where
gas
exchange
turbulent
force
such
that
airborne
particles
can
be
deposited
occurs.
It
consists
of
the
trachea,
bronchi,
and
bronchioles.
along
the
walls
of
these
airways
by
impaction,
interception,
The
pulmonary
regions
consists
of
the
acinus
which
is
the
sedimentation,
or
diffusion
depending
on
their
size.
The
site
where
gas
exchange
occurs;
it
is
comprised
of
pulmonary
region
contains
macrophages
which
engulf
respiratory
bronchioles,
alveolar
ducts
and
sacs,
and
alveoli.
particles
and
pathogens
that
enter
this
portion
of
the
lung.
A
detailed
discussion
of
pulmonary
anatomy
and
physiology
Notwithstanding
these
removal
mechanisms,
both
can
be
found
in:
Benjamin
(
1988)
and
U.
S.
EPA
(
1989
and
gaseous
and
particulate
pollutants
can
deposit
in
various
1994)
.
regions
of
the
lung.
Both
the
physiology
of
the
lung
and
the
Each
region
in
the
respiratory
system
can
be
chemistry
of
the
pollutant
influences
where
the
pollutant
involved
with
removing
pollutants
from
inspired
air.
The
tends
to
deposit.
nasopharyngeal
region
filters
out
large
inhaled
particles,
Gaseous
pollutants
are
evenly
dispersed
in
the
air
moderates
the
temperature,
and
increases
the
humidity
of
stream.
They
come
into
contact
with
a
large
portion
of
the
the
air.
The
surface
of
the
tracheobronchial
region
is
lung.
Generally,
their
solubility
and
reactivity
determines
covered
with
ciliated
mucous
secreting
cells
which
forms
a
where
they
deposit
in
the
lung.
Water
soluble
and
mucociliary
escalator
that
moves
particles
from
deep
chemically
reactive
gases
tend
to
deposit
in
the
upper
regions
of
the
lung
to
the
oral
cavity
where
they
may
be
respiratory
tract.
Lipid
soluble
or
non­
reactive
gases
swallowed
and
then
excreted.
The
branching
pattern
and
usually
are
not
removed
in
the
upper
airways
and
tend
to
physical
dimensions
of
the
these
airways
determine
the
deposit
in
the
distal
portions
of
the
lung.
Gases
can
be
pattern
of
deposition
of
airborne
particles
and
absorption
of
absorbed
into
the
blood
stream
or
react
with
lung
tissue.
gases
by
the
respiratory
tract.
They
decrease
in
diameter
as
Gases
can
be
removed
from
the
lung
by
reaction
with
they
divide
into
a
bifurcated
branching
network
dilutes
tissues
or
by
expiration.
The
amount
of
gas
retained
in
the
gases
by
axial
diffusion
of
gases
along
the
streamline
of
lung
or
other
parts
of
the
body
is
mainly
due
to
their
airways
and
radial
diffusion
of
gases
due
to
an
increase
in
solubility
in
blood.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
3
Chemically,
particles
are
quite
heterogenous.
They
that
does
not
come
into
contact
with
the
alveoli).
Alveolar
range
from
aqueous
soluble
particles
to
solid
insoluble
ventilation
is
approximately
70
percent
of
total
ventilation;
particles.
Their
size,
chemical
composition,
and
the
physical
tidal
volume
is
approximately
500
milliliters
(
ml)
and
the
forces
of
breathing
dictate
where
they
tend
to
deposit
in
the
amount
of
anatomic
dead
space
in
the
lungs
is
lung.
Large
particles,
those
with
a
diameter
of
greater
than
approximately
150
ml,
approximately
30%
of
the
amount
of
0.5
micrometers
(
um),
not
filtered
out
in
the
nasopharynx,
air
inhaled
(
Menzel
and
Amdur,
1986).
tend
to
deposit
in
the
upper
respiratory
tract
at
airway
Breathing
rates
are
affected
by
numerous
individual
branching
points
due
to
impaction.
The
momentum
of
these
characteristics,
including
age,
gender,
weight,
health
status,
particles
in
the
air
stream
is
such
that
they
tend
to
collide
and
levels
of
activity
(
running,
walking,
jogging,
etc.).
VRs
with
the
airway
wall
at
branching
points
in
the
are
either
measured
directly
using
a
spirometer
and
a
tracheobronchial
region
of
the
lung.
Those
particles
not
collection
system
or
indirectly
from
heart
rate
(
HR)
removed
from
the
airstream
by
impaction
will
likely
be
measurements.
In
many
of
the
studies
described
in
the
deposited
in
small
bronchi
and
bronchioles
by
following
sections,
HR
measurements
are
usually
correlated
sedimentation,
a
process
where
by
particles
settle
out
of
the
with
VR
in
simple
and
multiple
regression
analysis.
airstream
due
to
the
decrease
in
airstream
velocity
and
the
The
available
studies
on
inhalation
rates
are
gravitational
force
on
the
particles.
Small
particles,
less
summarized
in
the
following
sections.
Inhalation
rates
are
than
0.2
um,
acquire
a
random
motion
due
to
bombardment
reported
for
adults
and
children
(
including
infants)
by
air
molecules.
This
movement
can
cause
particles
to
be
performing
various
activities
and
outdoor
workers/
athletes.
deposited
on
the
wall
of
an
air
way
throughout
the
lungs.
The
activity
levels
have
been
categorized
as
resting,
A
special
case
exists
for
fibers.
Fibers
can
deposit
sedentary,
light,
moderate,
and
heavy.
In
most
studies,
the
along
the
wall
of
an
airway
by
a
process
known
as
sample
population
kept
diaries
to
record
their
physical
interception.
This
occurs
when
a
fiber
makes
contact
with
activities,
locations,
and
breathing
rates.
Ventilation
rates
an
airway
wall.
The
likelihood
of
interception
increases
as
were
either
measured,
self­
estimated
or
predicted
from
airway
diminish
in
diameter.
Fiber
shape
influences
equations
derived
using
VR­
HR
calibration
relationships.
deposition
too.
Long,
thin,
straight
fibers
tend
to
deposit
in
the
deep
region
of
the
lung
compared
to
thick
or
curved
fibers.
The
health
risk
associated
with
human
exposure
to
airborne
toxics
is
a
function
of
concentration
of
air
pollutants,
chemical
species,
duration
of
exposure,
and
inhalation
rate.
The
dose
delivered
to
target
organs
(
including
the
lungs)
,
the
biologically
effective
dose,
is
dependent
on
the
potentail
dose,
the
applied
dose
and
the
internal
dose
(
Figure
5­
1)
A
detailed
discussion
of
this
concept
can
be
found
in
Guidelines
for
Exposure
Assessment
(
U.
S.
EPA,
1992).
The
estimation
of
applied
dose
for
a
given
air
pollutant
is
dependent
on
inhalation
rate,
commonly
described
as
ventilation
rate
(
VR)
or
breathing
rate.
VR
is
usually
measured
as
minute
volume,
the
volume
in
liters
of
air
exhaled
per
minute(
V
).
V
is
the
product
of
the
E
E
number
of
respiratory
cycles
in
a
minute
and
the
volume
of
air
respired
during
each
respiratory
cycle,
the
tidal
volume(
V
).
T
When
interested
in
calculating
internal
dose,
assessors
must
consider
the
alveolar
ventilation
rate.
This
is
the
amount
of
air
available
for
exchange
with
alveoli
per
unit
time.
It
is
equivalent
to
the
tidal
volume(
V
)
minus
the
T
anatomic
dead
space
of
the
lungs
(
the
space
containing
air
5.2.2.
Key
Inhalation
Rate
Studies
Linn
et
al.
(
1992)
­
Documentation
of
Activity
Patterns
in
"
High­
Risk"
Groups
Exposed
to
Ozone
in
the
Los
Angeles
Area
­
Linn
et
al.
(
1992)
conducted
a
study
that
estimated
the
inhalation
rates
for
"
high­
risk"
subpopulation
groups
exposed
to
ozone
(
O
)
in
their
daily
3
activities
in
the
Los
Angeles
area.
The
population
surveyed
consisted
of
seven
subject
panels:
Panel
1:
20
healthy
outdoor
workers
(
15
males,
5
females,
ages
19­
50
years);
Panel
2:
17
healthy
elementary
school
students
(
5
males,
12
females,
ages
10­
12
years);
Panel
3:
19
healthy
high
school
students
(
7
males,
12
females,
ages
13­
17
years);
Panel
4:
49
asthmatic
adults
(
clinically
mild,
moderate,
and
severe,
15
males,
34
females,
ages
18­
50
years);
Panel
5:
24
asthmatic
adults
from
2
neighborhoods
of
contrasting
O
air
3
quality
(
10
males,
14
females,
ages
19­
46
years);
Panel
6:
13
young
asthmatics
(
7
males,
6
females,
ages
11­
16
years);
Panel
7:
construction
workers
(
7
males,
ages
26­
34
years).
Initially,
a
calibration
test
was
conducted,
followed
by
a
training
session.
Finally,
a
field
study
was
conducted
which
involved
subjects'
collecting
their
own
heart
rate
and
diary
data.
During
the
calibration
tests,
VR
and
HR
were
measured
simultaneously
at
each
exercise
level.
From
the
calibration
data
an
equation
was
developed
using
linear
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
4
August
1997
regression
analysis
to
predict
VR
from
measured
HR
(
Linn
exercise).
Table
5­
1
presents
the
calibration
and
field
et
al.,
1992).
protocols
for
self­
monitoring
of
activities
for
each
subject
In
the
field
study,
each
subject
(
except
construction
panel.
workers)
recorded
in
diaries:
their
daily
activities,
change
Table
5­
2
presents
the
mean
VR,
the
99th
percentile
in
locations
(
indoors,
outdoors,
or
in
a
vehicle),
self­
VR,
and
the
mean
VR
at
each
subjective
activity
level
estimated
breathing
rates
during
each
activity/
location,
and
(
slow,
medium,
fast).
The
mean
VR
and
99th
percentile
time
spent
at
each
activity/
location.
Healthy
subjects
VR
were
derived
from
all
HR
recordings
(
that
appeared
to
recorded
their
HR
once
every
60
seconds,
Asthmatic
be
valid)
without
considering
the
diary
data.
Each
of
the
subjects
recorded
their
diary
information
once
every
hour
three
activity
levels
was
determined
from
both
the
using
a
Heart
Watch.
Construction
workers
dictated
their
concurrent
diary
data
and
HR
recordings
by
direct
diary
information
to
a
technician
accompanying
them
on
the
calculation
or
regression
(
Linn
et
al.,
1992).
The
mean
VR
job.
Subjective
breathing
rates
were
defined
as
slow
for
healthy
adults
was
0.78
m
/
hr
while
the
mean
VR
for
(
walking
at
their
normal
pace);
medium
(
faster
than
normal
asthmatic
adults
was
1.02
m
/
hr
(
Table
5­
2).
The
walking);
and
fast
(
running
or
similarly
strenuous
preliminary
data
for
construction
workers
indicated
that
3
3
during
a
10­
hr
work
shift,
their
mean
VR
(
1.50
m
/
hr)
3
exceeded
the
VRs
of
all
other
subject
panels
(
Table
5­
2).
Linn
et
al.
(
1992)
reported
that
the
diary
data
showed
that
most
individuals
except
construction
workers
spent
most
of
their
time
(
in
a
typical
day)
indoors
at
slow
activity
level.
During
slow
activity,
asthmatic
subjects
had
higher
VRs
than
healthy
subjects,
except
construction
workers
(
Table
5­
2).
Also,
Linn
et
al.
(
1992)
reported
that
in
every
panel,
the
predicted
VR
correlated
significantly
with
the
subjective
estimates
of
activity
levels.

Table
5­
1.
Calibration
and
Field
Protocols
for
Self­
Monitoring
of
Activities
Grouped
by
Subject
Panels
Panel
Calibration
Protocol
Field
Protocol
Panel
1
­
Healthy
Outdoor
Workers
­
15
Laboratory
treadmill
exercise
tests,
indoor
3
days
in
1
typical
summer
week
(
included
most
female,
5
male,
age
19­
50
hallway
walking
tests
at
different
self­
chosen
active
workday
and
most
active
day
off);
HR
speeds,
2
outdoor
tests
consisted
of
1­
hour
recordings
and
activity
diary
during
waking
cycles
each
of
rest,
walking,
and
jogging.
hours.

Panel
2
­
Healthy
Elementary
School
Outdoor
exercises
each
consisted
of
20
minute
Saturday,
Sunday
and
Monday
(
school
day)
in
Students
­
5
male,
12
female,
age
10­
12
rest,
slow
walking,
jogging
and
fast
walking
early
autumn;
HR
recordings
and
activity
diary
during
waking
hours
and
during
sleep.

Panel
3
­
Healthy
High
School
Students
Outdoor
exercises
each
consisted
of
20
minute
Same
as
Panel
2,
however,
no
HR
recordings
­
7
male,
12
female,
age
13­
17
rest,
slow
walking,
jogging
and
fast
walking
during
sleep
for
most
subjects.

Panel
4
­
Adult
Asthmatics,
clinically
Treadmill
and
hallway
exercise
tests
1
typical
summer
week,
1
typical
winter
week;
mild,
moderate,
and
severe
­
15
male,
34
hourly
activity/
health
diary
during
waking
hours;
female,
age
18­
50
lung
function
tests
3
times
daily;
HR
recordings
during
waking
hours
on
at
least
3
days
(
including
most
active
work
day
and
day
off).

Panel
5
­
Adult
Asthmatics
from
2
Treadmill
and
hallway
exercise
tests
Similar
to
Panel
4,
personal
NO
and
acid
neighborhoods
of
contrasting
O
air
exposure
monitoring
included.
(
Panels
4
and
5
3
quality
­
10
male,
14
female,
age
19­
46
were
studied
in
different
years,
and
had
10
2
subjects
in
common).

Panel
6
­
Young
Asthmatics
­
7
male,
6
Laboratory
exercise
tests
on
bicycles
and
Similar
to
Panel
4,
summer
monitoring
for
2
female,
age
11­
16
treadmills
successive
weeks,
including
2
controlled
exposure
studies
with
few
or
no
observable
respiratory
effects.

Panel
7
­
Construction
Workers
­
7
Performed
similar
exercises
as
Panel
2
and
3,
HR
recordings
and
diary
information
during
1
male,
age
26­
34
and
also
performed
job­
related
tests
including
typical
summer
work
day.
lifting
and
carrying
a
9­
kg
pipe.

Source:
Linn
et
al.,
1992
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
5
Table
5­
2.
Subject
Panel
Inhalation
Rates
by
Mean
VR,
Upper
Percentiles,
and
Self­
Estimated
Breathing
Rates
Panel
Inhalation
Rates
(
m
/
hr)
3
N
Mean
VR
99th
Percentile
Mean
VR
at
Activity
Levels
a
(
m
/
hr)
VR
(
m
/
hr)
3
3
b
Slow
Medium
Fast
c
c
Healthy
1
­
Adults
20
0.78
2.46
0.72
1.02
3.06
2
­
Elementary
School
Students
17
0.90
1.98
0.84
0.96
1.14
3
­
High
School
Students
19
0.84
2.22
0.78
1.14
1.62
7
­
Construction
Workers
7
1.50
4.26
1.26
1.50
1.68
c
Asthmatics
4
­
Adults
49
1.02
1.92
1.02
1.68
2.46
5
­
Adults
24
1.20
2.40
1.20
2.04
4.02
d
6
­
Elementary
and
High
School
Students
13
1.20
2.40
1.20
1.20
1.50
Number
of
individuals
in
each
survey
panel.
a
Some
subjects
did
not
report
medium
and/
or
fast
activity.
Group
means
were
calculated
from
individual
means
(
i.
e.,
give
equal
weight
to
b
each
individual
who
recorded
any
time
at
the
indicated
activity
level).
Construction
workers
recorded
only
on
1
day,
mostly
during
work,
while
others
recorded
on
$
1
work
or
school
day
and
$
1
day
off.
c
Excluding
subjects
also
in
Panel
4.
d
Source:
Linn
et
al.,
1992.

A
limitation
of
this
study
is
that
calibration
data
may
the
3
days
once
per
minute
by
wearing
a
Heart
Watch.
VR
overestimate
the
predictive
power
of
HR
during
actual
field
values
for
each
self­
estimated
breathing
rate
and
activity
monitoring.
The
wide
variety
of
exercises
in
everyday
type
were
estimated
from
the
HR
recordings
by
employing
activities
may
result
in
greater
variation
of
the
VR­
HR
the
VR
and
HR
equation
obtained
from
the
calibration
tests.
relationship
than
calibrated.
Another
limitation
of
this
study
The
data
presented
in
Table
5­
3
represent
HR
is
the
small
sample
size
of
each
subpopulation
surveyed.
distribution
patterns
and
corresponding
predicted
VR
for
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
diary
data
can
provide
each
age
group
during
hours
spent
awake.
At
the
same
selfrough
estimates
of
ventilation
patterns
which
are
useful
in
reported
activity
levels
for
both
age
groups,
inhalation
rates
exposure
assessments.
Another
advantage
is
that
inhalation
were
higher
for
outdoor
activities
than
for
indoor
activities.
rates
were
presented
for
various
subpopulations
(
i.
e.,
The
total
hours
spent
indoors
by
high
school
students
healthy
outdoor
adult
workers,
healthy
children,
asthmatics,
(
21.2
hours)
were
higher
than
for
elementary
school
and
construction
workers).
students
(
19.6
hours).
The
converse
was
true
for
outdoor
Spier
et
al.
(
1992)
­
Activity
Patterns
in
Elementary
and
High
School
Students
Exposed
To
Oxidant
Pollution
­
Spier
et
al.
(
1992)
investigated
activity
patterns
of
17
elementary
school
students
(
10­
12
years
old)
and
19
high
school
students
(
13­
17
years
old)
in
suburban
Los
Angeles
from
late
September
to
October
(
oxidant
pollution
season).
Calibration
tests
were
conducted
in
supervised
outdoor
exercise
sessions.
The
exercise
sessions
consisted
of
5
minutes
for
each:
rest,
slow
walking,
jogging,
and
fast
walking.
HR
and
VR
were
measured
during
the
last
2
minutes
of
each
exercise.
Individual
VR
and
HR
relationships
for
each
individual
were
determined
by
fitting
a
regression
line
to
HR
values
and
log
VR
values.
Each
subject
recorded
their
daily
activities,
change
in
location,
and
breathing
rates
in
diaries
for
3
consecutive
days.
Self­
estimated
breathing
rates
were
recorded
as
slow
(
slow
walking),
medium
(
walking
faster
than
normal),
and
fast
(
running).
HR
was
recorded
during
activities;
2.7
hours
for
high
school
students,
and
4.4
hours
for
elementary
school
students
(
Table
5­
4).
Based
on
the
data
presented
in
Tables
5­
3
and
5­
4,
the
average
activityspecific
inhalation
rates
for
elementary
(
10­
12
years)
and
high
school
(
13­
17
years)
students
were
calculated
in
Table
5­
5.
For
elementary
school
students,
the
average
daily
inhalation
rates
(
based
on
indoor
and
outdoor
locations)
are
15.8
m
/
day
for
light
activities,
4.62
m
/
day
for
moderate
3
3
activities,
and
0.98
m
/
day
for
heavy
activities.
For
high
3
school
students
the
daily
inhalation
rates
for
light,
moderate,
and
heavy
activities
are
estimated
to
be
16.4
m
/
day,
3.1
3
m
/
day,
and
0.54
m
/
day,
respectively
(
Table
5­
5).
3
3
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
6
August
1997
Table
5­
3.
Distribution
of
Predicted
IR
by
Location
and
Activity
Levels
for
Elementary
and
High
School
Students
Age
%
Recorded
(
yrs)
Student
Location
Activity
Level
Timea
Inhalation
Rates
(
m
/
hr)
3
Percentile
Rankingsb
Mean
±
SD
1st
50th
99.9th
10­
12
EL
Indoors
slow
49.6
0.84
±
0.36
0.18
0.78
2.34
c
(
n
=
17)
medium
23.6
0.96
±
0.42
0.24
0.84
2.58
d
fast
2.4
1.02
±
0.60
0.24
0.84
3.42
Outdoors
slow
8.9
0.96
±
0.54
0.36
0.78
4.32
medium
11.2
1.08
±
0.48
0.24
0.96
3.36
fast
4.3
1.14
±
0.60
0.48
0.96
3.60
13­
17
HS
Indoors
slow
70.7
0.78
±
0.36
0.30
0.72
3.24
c
(
n
=
19)
medium
10.9
0.96
±
0.42
0.42
0.84
4.02
d
fast
1.4
1.26
±
0.66
0.54
1.08
6.84c
Outdoors
slow
8.2
0.96
±
0.48
0.42
0.90
5.28
medium
7.4
1.26
±
0.78
0.48
1.08
5.70
fast
1.4
1.44
±
1.08
0.48
1.02
5.94
Recorded
time
averaged
about
23
hr
per
elementary
school
student
and
33
hr.
per
high
school
student,
over
72­
hr.
periods.
a
Geometric
means
closely
approximated
50th
percentiles;
geometric
standard
deviations
were
1.2­
1.3
for
HR,
1.5­
1.8
for
VR.
b
EL
=
elementary
school
student;
HS
=
high
school
student.
c
N
=
number
of
students
that
participated
in
survey.
d
Highest
single
value.
e
Source:
Spier
et
al.,
1992.

Table
5­
4.
Average
Hours
Spent
Per
Day
in
a
Given
Location
and
Activity
Level
for
Elementary
(
EL)
and
High
School
(
HS)
Students
Student
Total
Time
Spent
(
EL
,
n
=
17;
HS
,
N
=
19)
Location
(
hrs/
day)
a
c
b
c
Activity
Level
Slow
Medium
Fast
EL
Indoor
16.3
2.9
0.4
19.6
EL
Outdoor
2.2
1.7
0.5
4.4
HS
Indoor
19.5
1.5
0.2
21.2
HS
Outdoor
1.2
1.3
0.2
2.7
Elementary
school
(
EL)
students
were
between
10­
12
years
old.
a
High
school
(
HS)
students
were
between
13­
17
years
old.
b
N
corresponds
to
number
of
school
students.
c
Source:
Spier
et
al.,
1992.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
7
Table
5­
5.
Distribution
Patterns
of
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
for
Elementary
(
EL)
and
High
School
(
HS)
Students
Grouped
by
Activity
Level
Students
(
yrs)
Location
Activity
type
(
m
/
day)
Age
Mean
IR
Percentile
Rankings
a
b
3
1st
50th
99.9th
EL
(
n
=
17)
10­
12
Indoor
Light
13.7
2.93
12.71
38.14
c
Moderate
2.8
0.70
2.44
7.48
Heavy
0.4
0.096
0.34
1.37
EL
Outdoor
Light
2.1
0.79
1.72
9.50
Moderate
1.84
0.41
1.63
5.71
Heavy
0.57
0.24
0.48
1.80
HS
(
n=
19)
13­
17
Indoor
Light
15.2
5.85
14.04
63.18
Moderate
1.4
0.63
1.26
6.03
Heavy
0.25
0.11
0.22
1.37
HS
Outdoor
Light
1.15
0.50
1.08
6.34
Moderate
1.64
0.62
1.40
7.41
Heavy
0.29
0.096
0.20
1.19
For
this
report,
activity
type
presented
in
Table
5­
2
was
redefined
as
light
activity
for
slow,
moderate
activity
for
medium,
and
heavy
a
activity
for
fast.
Daily
inhalation
rate
was
calculated
by
multiplying
the
hours
spent
at
each
activity
level
(
Table
5­
4)
by
the
corresponding
inhalation
rate
b
(
Table
5­
3).
Number
of
elementary
(
EL)
and
high
school
students
(
HS).
c
Source:
Adapted
from
Spier
et
al.,
1992
(
Generated
using
data
from
Tables
5­
3
and
5­
4).

A
limitation
of
this
study
is
the
small
sample
size.
identified
as
subjects
for
pilot
testing
purposes
in
this
age
The
results
may
not
be
representative
of
all
children
in
these
group
(
Adams,
1993).
age
groups.
Another
limitation
is
that
the
accuracy
of
the
Resting
protocols
conducted
in
the
laboratory
for
all
self­
estimated
breathing
rates
reported
by
younger
age
age
groups
consisted
of
three
phases
(
25
minutes
each)
of
groups
is
uncertain.
This
may
affect
the
validity
of
the
data
lying,
sitting,
and
standing.
They
were
categorized
as
set
generated.
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
inhalation
resting
and
sedentary
activities.
Two
active
protocols,
rates
were
determined
for
children
and
adolescents.
These
moderate
(
walking)
and
heavy
(
jogging/
running)
phases,
data
are
useful
in
estimating
exposure
for
the
younger
were
performed
on
a
treadmill
over
a
progressive
population.
continuum
of
intensities
made
up
of
6
minute
intervals,
at
3
Adams
(
1993)
­
Measurement
of
Breathing
Rate
and
Volume
in
Routinely
Performed
Daily
Activities
­
Adams
(
1993)
conducted
research
to
accomplish
two
main
objectives:
(
1)
identification
of
mean
and
ranges
of
inhalation
rates
for
various
age/
gender
cohorts
and
specific
activities;
and
(
2)
derivation
of
simple
linear
and
multiple
regression
equations
used
to
predict
inhalation
rates
through
other
measured
variables:
heart
rate
(
HR),
breathing
frequency
(
f
),
and
oxygen
consumption
(
V
).
A
total
of
B
O2
160
subjects
participated
in
the
primary
study.
There
were
four
age
dependent
groups:
(
1)
children
6
to
12.9
years
old,
(
2)
adolescents
between
13
and
18.9
years
old,
(
3)
adults
between
19
and
59.9
years
old,
and
(
4)
seniors
>
60
years
old
(
Adams,
1993).
An
additional
40
children
from
6
to
12
years
old
and
12
young
children
from
3
to
5
years
old
were
speeds,
ranging
from
slow
to
moderately
fast.
All
protocols
involved
measuring
VR,
HR,
f
(
breathing
frequency),
and
B
V
(
oxygen
consumption).
Measurements
were
taken
in
O2
the
last
5
minutes
of
each
phase
of
the
resting
protocol,
and
the
last
3
minutes
of
the
6
minute
intervals
at
each
speed
designated
in
the
active
protocols.
In
the
field,
all
children
completed
spontaneous
play
protocols,
while
the
older
adolescent
population
(
16­
18
years)
completed
car
driving
and
riding,
car
maintenance
(
males),
and
housework
(
females)
protocols.
All
adult
females
(
19­
60
years)
and
most
of
the
senior
(
60­
77
years)
females
completed
housework,
yardwork,
and
car
driving
and
riding
protocols.
Adult
and
senior
males
completed
car
driving
and
riding,
yardwork,
and
mowing
protocols.
HR,
VR,
and
f
were
measured
during
each
protocol.
Most
B
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
8
August
1997
BSA
=
Height
x
Weight
x
71.84.
(
Eqn.
5­
2)
(
0.725)
(
0.425)
protocols
were
conducted
for
30
minutes.
All
the
active
field
protocols
were
conducted
twice.
During
all
activities
in
either
the
laboratory
or
field
protocols,
IR
for
the
children's
group
revealed
no
significant
gender
differences,
but
those
for
the
adult
groups
A
limitation
associated
with
this
study
is
that
the
demonstrated
gender
differences.
Therefore,
IR
data
population
does
not
represent
the
general
U.
S.
population.
presented
in
Appendix
Tables
5A­
1
and
5A­
2
were
Also,
the
classification
of
activity
types
(
i.
e.,
laboratory
and
categorized
as
young
children,
children
(
no
gender),
and
for
field
protocols)
into
activity
levels
may
bias
the
inhalation
adult
female,
and
adult
male
by
activity
levels
(
resting,
rates
obtained
for
various
age/
gender
cohorts.
The
estimated
sedentary,
light,
moderate,
and
heavy).
These
categorized
rates
were
based
on
short­
term
data
and
may
not
reflect
data
from
the
Appendix
tables
are
summarized
as
IR
in
long­
term
patterns.
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
it
m
/
hr
in
Tables
5­
6
and
5­
7.
The
laboratory
protocols
are
provides
inhalation
data
for
all
age
groups.
3
shown
in
Table
5­
6.
Table
5­
7
presents
the
mean
inhalation
rates
by
group
and
activity
levels
(
light,
sedentary,
and
moderate)
in
field
protocols.
A
comparison
of
the
data
shown
in
Tables
5­
6
and
5­
7
suggest
that
during
light
and
sedentary
activities
in
laboratory
and
field
protocols,
similar
inhalation
rates
were
obtained
for
adult
females
and
adult
males.
Accurate
predictions
of
IR
across
all
population
groups
and
activity
types
were
obtained
by
including
body
surface
area
(
BSA),
HR,
and
f
in
multiple
regression
B
analysis
(
Adams,
1993).
Adams
(
1993)
calculated
BSA
from
measured
height
and
weight
using
the
equation:
Linn
et
al.
(
1993)
­
Activity
patterns
in
Ozone
Exposed
Construction
Workers
­
Linn
et
al.
(
1993)
estimated
the
inhalation
rates
of
19
construction
workers
who
perform
heavy
outdoor
labor
before
and
during
a
typical
work
shift.
The
workers
(
laborers,
iron
workers,
and
carpenters)
were
employed
at
a
site
on
a
hospital
campus
in
suburban
Los
Angeles.
The
construction
site
included
a
new
hospital
building
and
a
separate
medical
office
complex.
The
study
was
conducted
between
mid­
July
and
early
November,
1991.
During
this
period,
ozone
(
O
)
3
levels
were
typically
high.
Initially,
each
subject
was
calibrated
with
a
25­
minute
exercise
test
that
included
slow
walking,
fast
walking,
jogging,
lifting,
and
carrying.
All
calibration
tests
were
conducted
in
the
mornings.
VR
Table
5­
6.
Summary
of
Average
Inhalation
Rates
(
m
/
hr)
by
Age
Group
and
Activity
Levels
for
Laboratory
Protocols
3
Age
Group
Resting
Sedentary
Light
Moderate
Heavy
a
b
c
d
e
Young
Children
0.37
0.40
0.65
DNP
DNP
f
g
Children
0.45
0.47
0.95
1.74
2.23
h
Adult
Females
0.43
0.48
1.33
2.76
2.96
i
j
Adult
Males
0.54
0.60
1.45
1.93
3.63
k
Resting
defined
as
lying
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
1
for
original
data).
a
Sedentary
defined
as
sitting
and
standing
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
1
for
original
data).
b
Light
defined
as
walking
at
speed
level
1.5
­
3.0
mph
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
1
for
original
data).
c
Moderate
defined
as
fast
walking
(
3.3
­
4.0
mph)
and
slow
running
(
3.5
­
4.0
mph)
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
1
for
original
data).
d
Heavy
defined
as
fast
running
(
4.5
­
6.0
mph)
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
1
for
original
data).
e
Young
children
(
both
genders)
3
­
5.9
yrs
old.
f
DNP.
Group
did
not
perform
this
protocol
or
N
was
too
small
for
appropriate
mean
comparisons.
All
young
children
did
not
run.
g
Children
(
both
genders)
6
­
12.9
yrs
old.
h
Adult
females
defined
as
adolescent,
young
to
middle
aged,
and
older
adult
females.
i
Older
adults
not
included
in
mean
value
since
they
did
not
perform
running
protocols
at
particular
speeds.
j
Adult
males
defined
as
adolescent,
young
to
middle
aged,
and
older
adult
males.
k
Source:
Adapted
from
Adams,
1993.

Table
5­
7.
Summary
of
Average
Inhalation
Rates
(
m
/
hr)
by
Age
Age
Group
Light
Sedentary
Moderate
3
Group
and
Activity
Levels
in
Field
Protocols
a
b
c
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
9
Young
Children
DNP
DNP
0.68
d
e
Children
DNP
DNP
1.07
f
Adult
Females
1.10
0.51
DNP
g
h
Adult
Males
1.40
0.62
1.78
i
j
Light
activity
was
defined
as
car
maintenance
(
males),
a
housework
(
females),
and
yard
work
(
females)
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
2
for
original
data).
Sedentary
activity
was
defined
as
car
driving
and
riding
(
both
b
genders)
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
2
for
original
data).
Moderate
activity
was
defined
as
mowing
(
males);
wood
c
working
(
males);
yard
work
(
males);
and
play
(
children)
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
2
for
original
data).
Young
children
(
both
genders)
=
3
­
5.9
yrs
old.
d
DNP.
Group
did
not
perform
this
protocol
or
N
was
too
small
e
for
appropriate
mean
comparisons.
Children
(
both
genders)
=
6
­
12.9
yrs
old.
f
Adult
females
defined
as
adolescent,
young
to
middle
aged,
and
g
older
adult
females.
Older
adults
not
included
in
mean
value
since
they
did
not
(
Linn
et
al.,
1993).
Inhalation
rates
were
higher
in
hospital
h
perform
this
activity.
Adult
males
defined
as
adolescent,
young
to
middle
aged,
and
i
older
adult
males.
Adolescents
not
included
in
mean
value
since
they
did
not
j
perform
this
activity.
Source:
Adams,
1993.

and
HR
were
measured
simultaneously
during
the
test.
The
data
were
analyzed
using
least
squares
regression
to
derive
an
equation
for
predicting
VR
at
a
given
HR.
Following
the
calibration
tests,
each
subject
recorded
the
type
of
activities
to
be
performed
during
their
work
shift
(
i.
e.,
sitting/
standing,
walking,
lifting/
carrying,
and
"
working
at
trade"
­
defined
as
tasks
specific
to
the
individual's
job
classification).
Location,
and
self­
estimated
breathing
rates
("
slow"
similar
to
slow
walking,
"
medium"
similar
to
fast
walking,
and
"
fast"
similar
to
running)
were
also
recorded
in
the
diary.
During
work,
an
investigator
recorded
the
diary
information
dictated
by
the
subjects.
HR
was
recorded
minute
by
minute
for
each
subject
before
work
and
during
the
entire
work
shift.
Thus,
VR
ranges
for
each
breathing
rate
and
activity
category
were
estimated
from
the
HR
recordings
by
employing
the
relationship
between
VR
and
HR
obtained
from
the
calibration
tests.
A
total
of
182
hours
of
HR
recordings
were
obtained
during
the
survey
from
the
19
volunteers;
144
hours
reflected
actual
working
time
according
to
the
diary
records.
The
lowest
actual
working
hours
recorded
was
6.6
hours
and
the
highest
recorded
for
a
complete
work
shift
was
11.6
hours
(
Linn
et
al.,
1993).
Summary
statistics
for
predicted
VR
distributions
for
all
subjects,
and
for
job
or
site
defined
subgroups
are
presented
in
Table
5­
8.
The
data
reflect
all
recordings
before
and
during
work,
and
at
break
times.
For
all
subjects,
the
mean
IR
was
1.68
m
/
hr
with
a
standard
3
deviation
of
±
0.72
(
Table
5­
8).
Also,
for
most
subjects,
the
1st
and
99th
percentiles
of
HR
were
outside
of
the
calibration
range
(
calibration
ranges
are
presented
in
Appendix
Table
5A­
3).
Therefore,
corresponding
IR
percentiles
were
extrapolated
using
the
calibration
data
(
Linn
et
al.,
1993).
The
data
presented
in
Table
5­
9
represent
distribution
patterns
of
IR
for
each
subject,
total
subjects,
and
job
or
site
defined
subgroups
by
self­
estimated
breathing
rates
(
slow,
medium,
fast)
or
by
type
of
job
activity.
All
data
include
working
and
non­
working
hours.
The
mean
inhalation
rates
for
most
individuals
showed
statistically
significant
increases
with
higher
self­
estimated
breathing
rates
or
with
increasingly
strenuous
job
activity
site
workers
when
compared
with
office
site
workers
(
Table
5­
9).
In
spite
of
their
higher
predicted
VR
workers
at
the
hospital
site
reported
a
higher
percentage
of
slow
breathing
time
(
31
percent)
than
workers
at
the
office
site
(
20
percent),
and
a
lower
percentage
of
fast
breathing
time,
3
percent
and
5
percent,
respectively
(
Linn
et
al.,
1993).
Therefore,
individuals
whose
work
was
objectively
heavier
than
average
(
from
VR
predictions)
tended
to
describe
their
work
as
lighter
than
average
(
Linn
et
al.,
1993).
Linn
et
al.
(
1993)
also
concluded
that
during
an
O
pollution
3
episode,
construction
workers
should
experience
similar
microenvironmental
O
exposure
concentrations
as
other
3
healthy
outdoor
workers,
but
with
approximately
twice
as
high
a
VR.
Therefore,
the
inhaled
dose
of
O
should
be
3
almost
two
times
higher
for
typical
heavy­
construction
workers
than
for
typical
healthy
adults
performing
less
strenuous
outdoor
jobs.
A
limitation
associated
with
this
study
is
the
small
sample
size.
Another
limitation
of
this
study
is
that
calibration
data
were
not
obtained
at
extreme
conditions.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
10
August
1997
Table
5­
9.
Individual
Mean
Inhalation
Rate
(
m
/
hr)
by
Self­
Estimated
Breathing
Rate
or
Job
Activity
Category
for
Outdoor
Workers
3
Self­
Estimated
Breathing
Rate
(
m
/
hr)
3
Job
Activity
Category
(
m
/
hr)
3
Population
Group
and
Subgroup
Slow
Med
Fast
Sit/
Std
Walk
Carry
Tradeb
All
Subjects
(
n=
19)
1.44
1.86
2.04
1.56
1.80
2.10
1.92
Job
GCW
/
Laborers
(
n=
5)
a
1.20
1.56
1.68
1.26
1.44
1.74
1.56
Iron
Workers
(
n=
3)
1.38
1.86
2.10
1.62
1.74
1.98
1.92
Carpenters
(
n=
11)
1.62
2.04
2.28
1.62
1.92
2.28
2.04
Site
Office
Site
(
n=
7)
1.14
1.44
1.62
1.14
1.38
1.68
1.44
Hospital
Site
(
n=
12)
1.62
2.16
2.40
1.80
2.04
2.34
2.16
GCW
­
general
construction
worker
a
Trade
­
"
Working
at
Trade"
(
i.
e.,
tasks
specific
to
the
individual's
job
classification)
b
Source:
Linn
et
al.,
1993
Table
5­
8.
Distributions
of
Individual
and
Group
Inhalation/
Ventilation
Rate
for
Outdoor
Workers
Ventilation
Rate
(
VR)
(
m
/
hr)
3
Percentile
Population
Group
and
Subgroup
Mean
±
SD
1
50
99
a
All
Subjects
(
n
=
19)
1.68
±
0.72
0.66
1.62
3.90
b
Job
GCW
/
Laborers
(
n=
5)
1.44
±
0.66
0.48
1.32
3.66
c
Iron
Workers
(
n=
3)
1.62
±
0.66
0.60
1.56
3.24
Carpenters
(
n=
11)
1.86
±
0.78
0.78
1.74
4.14
Site
Medical
Office
Site
(
n=
7)
1.38
±
0.66
0.60
1.20
3.72
Hospital
Site
(
n=
12)
1.86
±
0.78
0.72
1.80
3.96
Each
group
or
subgroup
mean
was
calculated
from
individual
means,
not
from
pooled
data.
a
n
=
number
of
individuals
performing
specific
jobs
or
number
of
individuals
at
survey
sites.
b
GCW
­
general
construction
worker.
c
Source:
Linn
et
al.,
1993.

Therefore,
it
was
necessary
to
predict
IR
values
that
were
self­
estimated
breathing
rates
may
be
another
source
of
outside
the
calibration
range.
This
may
introduce
an
uncertainty
in
the
inhalation
rates
estimated.
An
advantage
unknown
amount
of
uncertainty
to
the
data
set.
Subjective
is
that
this
study
provides
empirical
data
useful
in
exposure
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
11
V
=
E
x
H
x
VQ
(
Eqn.
5­
3)
E
where:
V
=
ventilation
rate
(
L/
min
or
m
/
hr);
E
3
E
=
energy
expenditure
rate;
[
kilojoules/
minute
(
KJ/
min)
or
megajoules/
hour
(
MJ/
hr)];
H
=
volume
of
oxygen
[
at
standard
temperature
and
pressure,
dry
air
(
STPD)
consumed
in
the
production
of
1
kilojoule
(
KJ)
of
energy
expended
(
L/
KJ
or
m
/
MJ)];
and
3
VQ
=
ventilatory
equivalent
(
ratio
of
minute
volume
(
L/
min)
to
oxygen
uptake
(
L/
min))
unitless.
assessments
for
a
subpopulation
thought
to
be
the
most
reported
in
the
1977­
78
USDA­
NFCS
and
the
second
highly
exposed
common
occupational
group
(
outdoor
National
Health
and
Nutrition
Examination
Survey
workers).
(
NHANES
II).
The
survey
sample
for
NHANES
II
was
Layton
(
1993)
­
Metabolically
Consistent
Breathing
Rates
for
Use
in
Dose
Assessments
­
Layton
(
1993)
presented
a
new
method
for
estimating
metabolically
consistent
inhalation
rates
for
use
in
quantitative
dose
assessments
of
airborne
radionuclides.
Generally,
the
approach
for
estimating
the
breathing
rate
for
a
specified
time
frame
was
to
calculate
a
time­
weighted­
average
of
ventilation
rates
associated
with
physical
activities
of
varying
durations
(
Layton,
1993).
However,
in
this
study,
breathing
rates
were
calculated
based
on
oxygen
consumption
associated
with
energy
expenditures
for
short
(
hours)
and
long
(
weeks
and
months)
periods
of
time,
using
the
following
general
equation
to
calculate
energydependent
inhalation
rates:

Three
alternative
approaches
were
used
to
estimate
daily
chronic
(
long
term)
inhalation
rates
for
different
age/
gender
cohorts
of
the
U.
S.
population
using
this
methodology.
First
Approach
Inhalation
rates
were
estimated
by
multiplying
average
daily
food
energy
intakes
for
different
age/
gender
cohorts,
volume
of
oxygen
(
H),
and
ventilatory
equivalent
(
VQ),
as
shown
in
the
equation
above.
The
average
food
energy
intake
data
(
Table
5­
10)
are
based
on
approximately
30,000
individuals
and
were
obtained
from
the
USDA
1977­
78
Nationwide
Food
Consumption
Survey
(
USDANFCS
The
food
energy
intakes
were
adjusted
upwards
by
a
constant
factor
of
1.2
for
all
individuals
9
years
and
older
(
Layton,
1993).
This
factor
compensated
for
a
consistent
bias
in
USDA­
NFCS
attributed
to
under
reporting
of
the
foods
consumed
or
the
methods
used
to
ascertain
dietary
intakes.
Layton
(
1993)
used
a
weighted
average
oxygen
uptake
of
0.05
L
O
/
KJ
which
was
determined
from
data
2
approximately
20,000
participants.
The
ventilatory
equivalent
(
VQ)
of
27
used
was
calculated
as
the
geometric
mean
of
VQ
data
that
were
obtained
from
several
studies
by
Layton
(
1993).
The
inhalation
rate
estimation
techniques
are
shown
in
footnote
(
a)
of
Table
5­
11.
Table
5­
11
presents
the
daily
inhalation
rate
for
each
age/
gender
cohort.
The
highest
daily
inhalation
rates
were
reported
for
children
between
the
ages
of
6­
8
years
(
10
m
/
day),
for
males
between
15­
18
3
years
(
17
m
/
day),
and
females
between
9­
11
years
(
13
3
m
/
day).
Estimated
average
lifetime
inhalation
rates
for
3
males
and
females
are
14
m
/
day
and
10
m
/
day,
3
3
respectively
(
Table
5­
11).
Inhalation
rates
were
also
calculated
for
active
and
inactive
periods
for
the
various
age/
gender
cohorts.
The
inhalation
rate
for
inactive
periods
was
estimated
by
multiplying
the
basal
metabolic
rate
(
BMR)
times
the
oxygen
uptake
(
H)
times
the
VQ.
BMR
was
defined
as
"
the
minimum
amount
of
energy
required
to
support
basic
cellular
respiration
while
at
rest
and
not
actively
digesting
food"(
Layton,
1993).
The
inhalation
rate
for
active
periods
was
calculated
by
multiplying
the
inactive
inhalation
rate
by
the
ratio
of
the
rate
of
energy
expenditure
during
active
hours
to
the
estimated
BMR.
This
ratio
is
presented
as
F
in
Table
5­
11.
These
data
for
active
and
inactive
inhalation
rates
are
also
presented
in
Table
5­
11.
For
children,
inactive
and
active
inhalation
rates
ranged
between
2.35
and
5.95
m
/
day
and
6.35
to
13.09
m
/
day,
3
3
respectively.
For
adult
males
(
19­
64
years
old),
the
average
inactive
and
active
inhalation
rates
were
approximately
10
and
19
m
/
day,
respectively.
Also,
the
average
inactive
and
3
active
inhalation
rates
for
adult
females
(
19­
64
years
old)
were
approximately
8
and
12
m
/
day,
respectively.
3
Second
Approach
Inhalation
rates
were
calculated
by
multiplying
the
BMR
of
the
population
cohorts
times
A
(
ratio
of
total
daily
energy
expenditure
to
daily
BMR)
times
H
times
VQ.
The
BMR
data
obtained
from
literature
were
statistically
analyzed
and
regression
equations
were
developed
to
predict
BMR
from
body
weights
of
various
age/
gender
cohorts
(
Layton,
1993).
The
statistical
data
used
to
develop
the
regression
equations
are
presented
in
Appendix
Table
5A­
4.
The
data
obtained
from
the
second
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
12
August
1997
Table
5­
10.
Comparisons
of
Estimated
Basal
Metabolic
Rates
(
BMR)
with
Average
Food­
Energy
Intakes
for
Individuals
Sampled
in
the
1977­
78
NFCS
Cohort/
Age
Body
Weight
BMR
Energy
Intake
(
EFD)
Ratio
a
(
years)
kg
MJ
d
kcal
d
MJ
d
kcal
d
EFD/
BMR
­
1b
­
1c
­
1
­
1
Children
Under
1
7.6
1.74
416
3.32
793
1.90
1
to
2
13
3.08
734
5.07
1209
1.65
3
to
5
18
3.69
881
6.14
1466
1.66
6
to
8
26
4.41
1053
7.43
1774
1.68
Males
9
to
11
36
5.42
1293
8.55
2040
1.58
12
to
14
50
6.45
1540
9.54
2276
1.48
15
to
18
66
7.64
1823
10.8
2568
1.41
19
to
22
74
7.56
1804
10.0
2395
1.33
23
to
34
79
7.87
1879
10.1
2418
1.29
35
to
50
82
7.59
1811
9.51
2270
1.25
51
to
64
80
7.49
1788
9.04
2158
1.21
65
to
74
76
6.18
1476
8.02
1913
1.30
75
+
71
5.94
1417
7.82
1866
1.32
Females
9
to
11
36
4.91
1173
7.75
1849
1.58
12
to
14
49
5.64
1347
7.72
1842
1.37
15
to
18
56
6.03
1440
7.32
1748
1.21
19
to
22
59
5.69
1359
6.71
1601
1.18
23
to
34
62
5.88
1403
6.72
1603
1.14
35
to
50
66
5.78
1380
6.34
1514
1.10
51
to
64
67
5.82
1388
6.40
1528
1.10
65
to
74
66
5.26
1256
5.99
1430
1.14
75
+
62
5.11
1220
5.94
1417
1.16
Calculated
from
the
appropriate
age
and
gender­
based
BMR
equations
given
in
Appendix
Table
5A­
4.
a
MJ
d
­
mega
joules/
day
b
­
1
kcal
d
­
kilo
calories/
day
c
­
1
Source:
Layton,
1993.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
13
Table
5­
11.
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
Calculated
from
Food­
Energy
Intakes
Daily
Inhalation
Inhalation
Rates
Rate
Sleep
MET
Value
Inactive
Active
a
b
c
c
Cohort/
Age
(
years)
L
(
m
/
day)
(
h)
A
F
(
m
/
day)
(
m
/
day)
d
3
e
f
3
3
Children
<
1
1
4.5
11
1.9
2.7
2.35
6.35
1
­
2
2
6.8
11
1.6
2.2
4.16
9.15
3
­
5
3
8.3
10
1.7
2.2
4.98
10.96
6
­
8
3
10
10
1.7
2.2
5.95
13.09
Males
9
­
11
3
14
9
1.9
2.5
7.32
18.3
12
­
14
3
15
9
1.8
2.2
8.71
19.16
15
­
18
4
17
8
1.7
2.1
10.31
21.65
19
­
22
4
16
8
1.6
1.9
10.21
19.4
23
­
34
11
16
8
1.5
1.8
10.62
19.12
35
­
50
16
15
8
1.5
1.8
10.25
18.45
51
­
64
14
15
8
1.4
1.7
10.11
17.19
65
­
74
10
13
8
1.6
1.8
8.34
15.01
75+
1
13
8
1.6
1.9
8.02
15.24
Lifetime
average
14
g
Females
9
­
11
3
13
9
1.9
2.5
6.63
16.58
12
­
14
3
12
9
1.6
2.0
7.61
15.20
15
­
18
4
12
8
1.5
1.7
8.14
13.84
19
­
22
4
11
8
1.4
1.6
7.68
12.29
23
­
34
11
11
8
1.4
1.6
7.94
12.7
35
­
50
16
10
8
1.3
1.5
7.80
11.7
51
­
64
14
10
8
1.3
1.5
7.86
11.8
65
­
74
10
9.7
8
1.4
1.5
7.10
10.65
75+
1
9.6
8
1.4
1.6
6.90
11.04
Lifetime
average
10
g
Daily
inhalation
rate
was
calculated
by
multiplying
the
EFD
values
(
see
Table
5­
10)
by
H
x
VQ
x
(
m
1,000
L
)
for
subjects
under
9
years
of
age
and
by
1.2
x
H
x
a
3
­
1
VQ
x
(
m
1,000
L
)
(
for
subjects
9
years
of
age
and
older
(
see
text
for
explanation).
3
­
1
Where:
EFD
=
Food
energy
intake
(
Kcal/
day)
or
(
MJ/
day)
H
=
Oxygen
uptake
=
0.05
LO
/
KJ
or
0.21
LO
/
Kcal
2
2
VQ
=
Ventilation
equivalent
=
27
=
geometric
mean
of
VQs
(
unitless)

MET
=
Metabolic
equivalent
b
Inhalation
rate
for
inactive
periods
was
calculated
as
BMR
x
H
x
VQ
x
(
d
1,440
min
)
and
for
active
periods
by
multiplying
inactive
inhalation
rate
by
F
(
See
c
­
1
footnote
f);
BMR
values
are
from
Table
5­
10.
Where:
BMR
=
Basal
metabolic
rate
(
MJ/
day)
or
(
kg/
hr)

L
is
the
number
of
years
for
each
age
cohort.
d
For
individuals
9
years
of
age
and
older,
A
was
calculated
by
multiplying
the
ratio
for
EFD/
BMR
(
unitless)
(
Table
5­
10)
by
the
factor
1.2
(
see
text
for
e
explanation).

F
=
(
24A
­
S)/(
24
­
S)
(
unitless),
ratio
of
the
rate
of
energy
expenditure
during
active
hours
to
the
estimated
BMR
(
unitless)
f
Where:
S
=
Number
of
hours
spent
sleeping
each
day
(
hrs)

Lifetime
average
was
calculated
by
multiplying
individual
inhalation
rate
by
corresponding
L
values
summing
the
products
across
cohorts
and
dividing
the
result
g
by
75,
the
total
of
the
cohort
age
spans.

Source:
Layton,
1993.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
14
August
1997
approach
are
presented
in
Table
5­
12.
Inhalation
rates
for
sleep,
MET=
1;
light­
activity,
MET=
1.5;
moderate
activity,
children
(
6
months
­
10
years)
ranged
from
7.3­
9.3
m
/
day
MET=
4;
hard
activity,
MET=
6;
and
very
hard
activity,
3
for
male
and
5.6
to
8.6
m
/
day
for
female
children
and
(
10­
MET=
10.
The
physical
activities
were
based
on
recall
by
3
18
years)
was
15
m
/
day
for
males
and
12
m
/
day
for
the
test
subject
(
Layton,
1993).
The
survey
sample
was
3
3
females.
Adult
females
(
18
years
and
older)
ranged
from
2,126
individuals
(
1,120
women
and
1,006
men)
ages
20­
9.9­
11
m
/
day
and
adult
males
(
18
years
and
older)
ranged
74
years
that
were
randomly
selected
from
four
3
from
13­
17
m
/
day.
These
rates
are
similar
to
the
daily
communities
in
California.
The
BMRs
were
estimated
3
inhalation
rates
obtained
using
the
first
approach.
Also,
the
using
the
metabolic
equations
presented
in
Appendix
Table
inactive
inhalation
rates
obtained
from
the
first
approach
are
5A­
4.
The
body
weights
were
obtained
from
a
study
lower
than
the
inhalation
rates
obtained
using
the
second
conducted
by
Najjar
and
Rowland
(
1987)
which
randomly
approach.
This
may
be
attributed
to
the
BMR
multiplier
sampled
individuals
from
the
U.
S.
population
(
Layton,
employed
in
the
equation
of
the
second
approach
to
1993).
Table
5­
13
presents
the
inhalation
rates
(
V
)
in
calculate
inhalation
rates.
m
/
day
and
m
/
hr
for
adult
males
and
females
aged
20­
74
Third
Approach
years
at
five
physical
activity
levels.
The
total
daily
Inhalation
rates
were
calculated
by
multiplying
inhalation
rates
ranged
from
13­
17
m
/
day
for
adult
males
estimated
energy
expenditures
associated
with
different
and
11­
15
m
/
day
for
adult
females.
levels
of
physical
activity
engaged
in
over
the
course
of
an
The
rates
for
adult
females
were
higher
when
average
day
by
VQ
and
H
for
each
age/
gender
cohort.
The
compared
with
the
other
two
approaches.
Layton
(
1993)
energy
expenditure
associated
with
each
level
of
activity
reported
that
the
estimated
inhalation
rates
obtained
from
was
estimated
by
multiplying
BMRs
of
each
activity
level
the
third
approach
were
particularly
sensitive
to
the
MET
by
the
metabolic
equivalent
(
MET)
and
by
the
time
spent
value
that
represented
the
energy
expenditures
for
light
per
day
performing
each
activity
for
each
age/
gender
activities.
Layton
(
1993)
stated
further
that
in
the
original
population.
The
time­
activity
data
used
in
this
approach
time­
activity
survey
(
i.
e.,
conducted
by
Sallis
et
al.,
1985),
were
obtained
from
a
survey
conducted
by
Sallis
et
al.
time
spent
performing
light
activities
was
not
presented.
(
1985)
(
Layton,
1993).
In
that
survey,
the
physical­
activity
Therefore,
the
time
spent
at
light
activities
was
estimated
categories
and
associated
MET
values
used
were
E
3
3
3
3
Table
5­
12.
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
Obtained
from
the
Ratios
of
Total
Energy
Expenditure
to
Basal
Metabolic
Rate
(
BMR)

Gender/
Age
Body
Weight
BMR
H
Inhalation
Rate,
V
(
yrs)
(
kg)
(
MJ/
day)
VQ
A
(
m
O
/
MJ)
(
m
/
day)
a
b
c
3
2
E
3
d
Male
0.5
­
<
3
14
3.4
27
1.6
0.05
7.3
3
­
<
10
23
4.3
27
1.6
0.05
9.3
10
­
<
18
53
6.7
27
1.7
0.05
15
18
­
<
30
76
7.7
27
1.59
0.05
17
30
­
<
60
80
7.5
27
1.59
0.05
16
60+
75
6.1
27
1.59
0.05
13
Female
0.5
­
<
3
11
2.6
27
1.6
0.05
5.6
3
­
<
10
23
4.0
27
1.6
0.05
8.6
10
­
<
18
50
5.7
27
1.5
0.05
12
18
­
<
30
62
5.9
27
1.38
0.05
11
30
­
<
60
68
5.8
27
1.38
0.05
11
60+
67
5.3
27
1.38
0.05
9.9
Body
weight
was
based
on
the
average
weights
for
age/
gender
cohorts
in
the
U.
S.
population.
a
The
BMRs
(
basal
metabolic
rate)
are
calculated
using
the
respective
body
weights
and
BMR
equations
(
see
Appendix
Table
5A­
4).
b
The
values
of
the
BMR
multiplier
(
EFD/
BMR)
for
those
18
years
and
older
were
derived
from
the
Basiotis
et
al.
(
1989)
study:
Male
=
1.59,
c
Female
=
1.38.
For
males
and
females
under
10
years
old,
the
mean
BMR
multiplier
used
was
1.6.
For
males
and
females
aged
10
to
<
18
years,
the
mean
values
for
A
given
in
Table
5­
11
for
12­
14
years
and
15­
18
years,
age
brackets
for
males
and
females
were
used:
male
=
1.7
and
female
=
1.5.
Inhalation
rate
=
BMR
x
A
x
H
x
VQ;
VQ
=
ventilation
equivalent
and
H
=
oxygen
uptake.
d
Source:
Layton,
1993.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
15
Table
5­
13.
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
Based
on
Time­
Activity
Survey
Age
(
yrs)

and
Activity
MET
Males
Females
Body
Weighta
(
kg)
BMRb
(
KJ/
hr)
Durationc
(
hr/
day)
Ed
(
MJ/
day)
V
E
e
(
m
/
day)

3
V
E
f
(
m
/
hr)

3
Body
Weighta
(
kg)
BMRb
(
KJ/
hr)
Durationc
(
hr/
day)
Ed
(
MJ/
day)
V
E
e
(
m
/
day)

3
V
E
f
(
m
/
hr)

3
20­
34
Sleep
Light
Moderate
Hard
Very
Hard
Totals
1
1.5
4
6
10
76
76
76
76
76
320
320
320
320
320
7.2
14.5
1.2
0.64
0.23
24
2.3
7.0
1.5
1.2
0.74
17
3.1
9.4
2.1
1.7
1.0
17
0.4
0.7
1.7
2.6
4.3
62
62
62
62
62
283
283
283
283
283
7.2
14.5
1.2
0.64
0.23
24
2.0
6.2
1.4
1.1
0.65
11
2.8
8.3
1.8
1.5
0.88
15
0.4
0.6
1.5
2.3
3.8
35­
49
Sleep
Light
Moderate
Hard
Very
Hard
Totals
1
1.5
4
6
10
81
81
81
81
81
314
314
314
314
314
7.1
14.6
1.4
0.59
0.29
24
2.2
6.9
1.8
1.1
0.91
13
3.0
9.3
2.4
1.5
1.2
17
0.4
0.6
1.7
2.5
4.2
67
67
67
67
67
242
242
242
242
242
7.1
14.6
1.4
0.59
0.29
24
1.7
5.3
1.4
0.9
0.70
9.9
2.3
7.2
1.8
1.2
0.95
13
0.3
0.5
1.3
2.0
3.2
50­
64
Sleep
Light
Moderate
Hard
Very
Hard
Totals
1
1.5
4
6
10
80
80
80
80
80
312
312
312
312
312
7.3
14.9
1.1
0.50
0.14
24
2.3
7.0
1.4
0.94
0.44
12
3.1
9.4
1.9
1.3
0.6
16
0.4
0.6
1.7
2.5
4.2
68
68
68
68
68
244
244
244
244
244
7.3
14.9
1.1
0.5
0.14
24
1.8
5.4
1.1
0.7
0.34
9.4
2.4
7.4
1.4
1.0
0.46
13
0.3
0.5
1.3
2.0
3.3
65­
74
Sleep
Light
Moderate
Hard
Very
Hard
Totals
1
1.5
4
6
10
75
75
75
75
75
256
256
256
256
256
7.3
14.9
1.1
0.5
0.14
24
1.9
5.7
1.1
0.8
0.36
9.8
2.5
7.7
1.5
1.0
0.48
13
0.3
0.5
1.4
2.1
3.5
67
67
67
67
67
221
221
221
221
221
7.3
14.9
1.1
0.5
0.14
24
1.6
4.9
1.0
0.7
0.31
8.5
2.2
6.7
1.3
0.9
0.42
11
0.3
0.4
1.2
1.8
3.0
Body
weights
were
obtained
from
Najjar
and
Rowland
(
1987)

a
The
basal
metabolic
rates
(
BMRs)
for
the
age/
gender
cohorts
were
calculated
using
the
respective
body
weights
and
the
BMR
equations
(
Appendix
Table
5A­
4)

b
Duration
of
activities
were
obtained
from
Sallis
et
al.
(
1985)

c
Energy
expenditure
rate
(
E)
was
calculated
by
multiplying
BMR
(
KJ/
hr)
x
(
MJ/
1000
KJ)
x
duration
(
hr/
day)
x
MET
d
V
(
inhalation
rate)
was
calculated
by
multiplying
E
(
MJ/
day)
by
H(
0.05
m
oxygen/
MJ)
by
VQ
(
27)

e
E
3
V
(
m
/
hr)
was
calculated
by
multiplying
BMR
(
KJ/
hr)
x
(
MJ/
1000
KJ)
x
MET
x
H
(
0.05
m
oxygen/
MJ)
x
VQ
(
27)

f
E
3
3
Source:
Layton,
1993.
60
min
hr
x
m3
1000L
x
L
min
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
16
August
1997
by
subtracting
the
total
time
spent
at
sleep,
moderate,
heavy,
this
study
are
somewhat
subjective,
the
explanation
that
and
very
heavy
activities
from
24
hours
(
Layton,
1993).
activity
pattern
differences
is
responsible
for
the
lower
level
The
range
of
inhalation
rates
for
adult
females
were
9.6
to
obtained
with
the
metabolic
approach
(
25
percent)
11
m
/
day,
9.9
to
11
m
/
day,
and
11
to
15
m
/
day,
for
the
compared
to
the
activity
pattern
approach
is
not
well
3
3
3
first,
second,
and
third
approach,
respectively.
The
supported
by
the
data,
and
different
populations
were
used
inhalation
rates
for
adult
males
ranged
from
13
to
16
m
/
day
in
each
approach
which
may
introduce
error.
3
for
the
first
approach,
and
13
to
17
m
/
day
for
the
second
3
and
third
approaches.
Inhalation
rates
were
also
obtained
for
short­
term
exposures
for
various
age/
gender
cohorts
and
five
energyexpenditure
categories
(
rest,
sedentary,
light,
moderate,
and
heavy).
BMRs
were
multiplied
by
the
product
of
MET,
H,
and
VQ.
The
data
obtained
for
short
term
exposures
are
presented
in
Table
5­
14.
The
major
strengths
of
the
Layton
(
1993)
study
are
that
it
obtains
similar
results
using
three
different
approaches
to
estimate
inhalation
rates
in
different
age
groups
and
that
the
populations
are
large,
consisting
of
men,
women,
and
children.
Explanations
for
differences
in
results
due
to
metabolic
measurements,
reported
diet,
or
activity
patterns
are
supported
by
observations
reported
by
other
investigators
in
other
studies.
Major
limitations
of
this
study
are
that
activity
pattern
levels
estimated
in
5.2.3.
Relevant
Inhalation
Rate
Studies
International
Commission
on
Radiological
Protection
(
ICRP)
(
1981)
­
Report
of
the
Task
Group
on
Reference
Man
­
The
International
Commission
of
Radiological
Protection
(
ICRP)
estimated
daily
inhalation
rates
for
reference
adult
males,
adult
females,
children
(
10
years
old),
infant
(
1
year
old),
and
newborn
babies
by
using
a
time­
activity­
ventilation
approach.
This
approach
for
estimating
inhalation
rate
over
a
specified
period
of
time
was
based
on
calculating
a
time
weighted
average
of
inhalation
rates
associated
with
physical
activities
of
varying
durations.
ICRP
(
1981)
compiled
reference
values
(
Appendix
Table
5A­
5)
of
minute
volume/
inhalation
rates
from
various
literature
sources.
ICRP
(
1981)
assumed
that
the
daily
activities
of
a
reference
man
and
woman,
and
child
(
10
yrs)
consisted
of
Table
5­
14.
Inhalation
Rates
for
Short­
Term
Exposures
Gender/
Age
(
yrs)
Weight
BMR
(
kg)
(
MJ/
day)
a
b
Activity
Type
Rest
Sedentary
Light
Moderate
Heavy
MET
(
BMR
Multiplier)

1
1.2
2
4
10
c
d
e
Inhalation
Rate
(
m
/
hr)
3
f,
g
Male
0.5
­
<
3
14
3.40
0.19
0.23
0.38
0.78
1.92
3
­
<
10
23
4.30
0.24
0.29
0.49
0.96
2.40
10
­
<
18
53
6.70
0.38
0.45
0.78
1.50
3.78
18
­
<
30
76
7.70
0.43
0.52
0.84
1.74
4.32
30
­
<
60
80
7.50
0.42
0.50
0.84
1.68
4.20
60+
75
6.10
0.34
0.41
0.66
1.38
3.42
Female
0.5
­
<
3
11
2.60
0.14
0.17
0.29
0.60
1.44
3
­
<
10
23
4.00
0.23
0.27
0.45
0.90
2.28
10
­
<
18
50
5.70
0.32
0.38
0.66
1.26
3.18
18
­
<
30
62
5.90
0.33
0.40
0.66
1.32
3.30
30
­
<
60
68
5.80
0.32
0.39
0.66
1.32
3.24
60+
67
5.30
0.30
0.36
0.59
1.20
3.00
Body
weights
were
based
on
average
weights
for
age/
gender
cohorts
of
the
U.
S.
population
a
The
BMRs
for
the
age/
gender
cohorts
were
calculated
using
the
respective
body
weights
and
the
BMR
equations
(
Appendix
Table
5A­
4).
b
Range
of
1.5
­
2.5.
c
Range
of
3
­
5.
d
Range
of
>
5
­
20.
e
The
inhalation
rate
was
calculated
by
multiplying
BMR
(
MJ/
day)
x
H
(
0.05
L/
KJ)
x
MET
x
VQ
(
27)
x
(
d/
1,440
min)
f
Original
data
were
presented
in
L/
min.
Conversion
to
m
/
hr
was
obtained
as
follows:
g
3
Source:
Layton,
1993.
DIR
'
1
T
j
K
i
'
1
IR
i
t
i
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
17
8
hours
of
rest
and
16
hours
of
light
activities.
It
was
also
as
research
objective
itself
and
the
available
studies
have
assumed
that
16
hours
were
divided
evenly
between
been
for
specific
subpopulations
such
as
obese,
asthmatics,
occupational
and
nonoccupational
activities.
It
was
or
marathon
runners.
The
data
compiled
by
the
U.
S.
EPA
assumed
that
a
day
consisted
of
14
hours
resting
and
10
(
1985)
for
each
age/
gender
cohorts
were
obtained
at
various
hours
light
activity
for
an
infant
(
1
yr).
A
newborn's
daily
activity
levels.
These
levels
were
categorized
as
light,
activities
consisted
of
23
hours
resting
and
1
hour
light
moderate,
or
heavy
according
to
the
criteria
developed
by
activity.
Table
5­
15
presents
the
daily
inhalation
rates
the
EPA
Office
of
Environmental
Criteria
and
Assessment
obtained
for
all
ages/
genders.
The
estimated
inhalation
for
the
Ozone
Criteria
Document.
These
criteria
were
rates
were
22.8
m
/
day
for
adult
males,
21.1
m
/
day
for
developed
for
a
reference
male
adult
with
a
body
weight
of
3
3
adult
females,
14.8
m
/
day
for
children
(
age
10
years),
3.76
70
kg
(
U.
S.
EPA,
1985).
The
minute
ventilation
rates
for
3
m
/
day
for
infants
(
age
1
year),
and
0.78
m
/
day
for
adult
males
based
on
these
activity
level
categories
are
3
3
newborns.
detailed
in
Appendix
Table
5A­
6.

Table
5­
15.
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
Estimated
From
Daily
Activitiesa
Inhalation
Rate
(
IR)

Subject
Resting
Light
Daily
Inhalation
(
m
/
hr)
Activity
Rate
(
DIR)
3
(
m
/
hr)
(
m
/
day)
3
b
3
Adult
Man
0.45
1.2
22.8
Adult
Woman
0.36
1.14
21.1
Child
(
10
yrs)
0.29
0.78
14.8
Infant
(
1
yr)
0.09
0.25
3.76
Newborn
0.03
0.09
0.78
Assumptions
made
were
based
on
8
hours
resting
and
16
hours
light
activity
a
for
adults
and
children
(
10
yrs);
14
hours
resting
and
10
hours
light
activity
data
presented
in
Tables
5­
16
and
5­
17,
a
daily
inhalation
for
infants
(
1
yr);
23
hours
resting
and
1
hour
light
activity
for
newborns.
b
IR
=
Corresponding
inhalation
rate
at
i
activity
i
th
t
=
Hours
spent
during
the
i
activity
i
th
k
=
Number
of
activity
periods
T
=
Total
time
of
the
exposure
period
(
i.
e.,
a
day)

Source:
ICRP,
1981
A
limitation
associated
with
this
study
is
that
the
validity
and
accuracy
of
the
inhalation
rates
data
used
in
the
compilation
were
not
specified.
This
may
introduce
some
degree
of
uncertainty
in
the
results
obtained.
Also,
the
approach
used
involved
assuming
hours
spent
by
various
age/
gender
cohorts
in
specific
activities.
These
assumptions
may
over/
under­
estimate
the
inhalation
rates
obtained.
U.
S.
EPA
(
1985)
­
Development
of
Statistical
Distributions
or
Ranges
of
Standard
Factors
Used
in
Exposure
Assessments
­
Due
to
a
paucity
of
information
in
the
literature
regarding
equations
used
to
develop
statistical
distributions
of
minute
ventilation/
ventilation
rate
at
all
activity
levels
for
male
and
female
children
and
adults,
the
U.
S.
EPA
(
1985)
compiled
measured
values
of
minute
ventilation
for
various
age/
gender
cohorts
from
early
studies.
In
more
recent
investigations,
minute
ventilations
have
been
measured
more
as
background
information
than
Table
5­
16
presents
a
summary
of
inhalation
rates
by
age,
gender,
and
activity
level
(
detailed
data
are
presented
in
Appendix
Table
5A­
7).
A
description
of
activities
included
in
each
activity
level
is
also
presented
in
Table
5­
16.
Table
5­
16
indicates
that
at
rest,
the
average
adult
inhalation
rate
is
0.5
m
/
hr.
The
mean
inhalation
rate
for
3
children
at
rest,
ages
6
and
10
years,
is
0.4
m
/
hr.
Table
5­
3
17
presents
activity
pattern
data
aggregated
for
three
microenvironments
by
activity
level
for
all
age
groups.
The
total
average
hours
spent
indoors
was
20.4,
outdoors
was
1.77,
and
in
transportation
vehicle
was
1.77.
Based
on
the
rate
was
calculated
for
adults
and
children
by
using
a
timeactivity
ventilation
approach.
These
data
are
presented
in
Table
5­
18.
The
calculated
average
daily
inhalation
rate
is
16
m
/
day
for
adults.
The
average
daily
inhalation
rate
for
3
children
(
6
and
10
yrs)
is
18.9
m
/
day
([
16.74
+
21.02]/
2).
3
A
limitation
associated
with
this
study
is
that
many
of
the
values
used
in
the
data
compilation
were
from
early
studies.
The
accuracy
and/
or
validity
of
the
values
used
and
data
collection
method
were
not
presented
in
U.
S.
EPA
(
1985).
This
introduces
uncertainty
in
the
results
obtained.
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
the
data
are
actual
measurement
data
for
a
large
number
of
subjects
and
the
data
are
presented
for
both
adults
and
children.
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1990)
­
Improved
Quantitation
of
Air
Pollution
Dose
Rates
by
Improved
Estimation
of
Ventilation
Rate­
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1990)
conducted
this
study
to
develop
and
validate
new
methods
to
accurately
estimate
ventilation
rates
for
typical
individuals
during
their
normal
activities.
Two
practical
approaches
were
tested
for
estimating
ventilation
rates
indirectly:
(
1)
volunteers
were
trained
to
estimate
their
own
VR
at
IR
'
1
T
j
K
i
'
1
IR
i
t
i
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
18
August
1997
Table
5­
16.
Summary
of
Human
Inhalation
Rates
for
Men,
Women,
and
Children
by
Activity
Level
(
m
/
hour)
3
a
nb
Restingc
n
Lightd
n
Moderatee
n
Heavyf
Adult
male
454
0.7
102
0.8
102
2.5
267
4.8
Adult
female
595
0.3
786
0.5
106
1.6
211
2.9
Average
adultg
0.5
0.6
2.1
3.9
Child,
age
6
years
8
0.4
16
0.8
4
2.0
5
2.3
Child,
age
10
years
10
0.4
40
1.0
29
3.2
43
3.9
Values
of
inhalation
rates
for
males,
females,
and
children
(
male
and
female)
presented
in
this
table
represent
the
mean
of
values
reported
for
each
activity
level
a
in
1985.
(
See
Appendix
Table
5A­
7
for
a
detailed
listing
of
the
data
from
U.
S.
EPA,
1985.)
n
=
number
of
observations
at
each
activity
level.
b
Includes
watching
television,
reading,
and
sleeping.
c
Includes
most
domestic
work,
attending
to
personal
needs
and
care,
hobbies,
and
conducting
minor
indoor
repairs
and
home
improvements.
d
Includes
heavy
indoor
cleanup,
performance
of
major
indoor
repairs
and
alterations,
and
climbing
stairs.
e
Includes
vigorous
physical
exercise
and
climbing
stairs
carrying
a
load.
f
Derived
by
taking
the
mean
of
the
adult
male
and
adult
female
values
for
each
activity
level.
g
Source:
Adapted
from
U.
S.
EPA,
1985.

Table
5­
17.
Activity
Pattern
Data
Aggregated
for
Three
Microenvironments
by
Activity
Level
for
all
Age
Groups
Microenvironment
Activity
Each
Microenvironment
at
Level
Each
Activity
Level
Average
Hours
Per
Day
in
Indoors
Resting
9.82
Outdoors
Resting
0.505
In
Transportation
Resting
0.86
Vehicle
Light
0.86
Light
9.82
Moderate
0.71
Heavy
0.098
TOTAL
20.4
Light
0.505
Moderate
0.65
Heavy
0.12
TOTAL
1.77
Moderate
0.05
Heavy
0.0012
TOTAL
1.77
Source:
Adapted
from
U.
S.
EPA,
1985.
Table
5­
18.
Summary
of
Daily
Inhalation
Rates
Grouped
by
Age
and
Activity
level
Subject
(
m
/
day)
Daily
Inhalation
Rate
(
m
/
day)
Total
3
a
Daily
IRb
3
Resting
Light
Moderate
Heavy
Adult
Male
7.83
8.95
3.53
1.05
21.4
Adult
3.35
5.59
2.26
0.64
11.8
Female
Adult
5.60
6.71
2.96
0.85
16
Averagec
Child
4.47
8.95
2.82
0.50
16.74
(
age
6)

Child
4.47
11.19
4.51
0.85
21.02
(
age
10)

Daily
inhalation
rate
was
calculated
using
the
following
equation:
a
IR
=
inhalation
rate
at
i
activity
(
Table
5­
18)
i
th
t
=
hours
spent
per
day
during
i
activity
(
Table
5­
19)
i
th
k
=
number
of
activity
periods
T
=
total
time
of
the
exposure
period
(
e.
g.,
a
day)

Total
daily
inhalation
rate
was
calculated
by
summing
the
specific
activity
b
(
resting,
light,
moderate,
heavy)
daily
inhalation
rate.

Source:
Generated
using
the
data
from
U.
S.
EPA
(
1985)
as
shown
in
Tables
5­
16
and
5­
17.

various
controlled
levels
of
exercise;
and
(
2)
individual
VR
al.,
1990).
In
the
first
approach,
the
training
session
and
HR
relationships
were
determined
in
another
set
of
involved
9
volunteers
(
3
females
and
6
males)
from
21
to
volunteers
during
supervised
exercise
sessions
(
Shamoo
et
37
years
old.
Initially
the
subjects
were
trained
on
a
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
19
treadmill
with
regularly
increasing
speeds.
VR
competitive
aerobic
trainers.
This
subset
of
sample
measurements
were
recorded
during
the
last
minute
of
the
population
tended
to
underestimate
their
own
physical
3­
minute
interval
at
each
speed.
VR
was
reported
to
the
activity
levels
at
higher
VR
ranges.
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1990)
subjects
as
low
(
1.4
m
/
hr),
medium
(
1.5­
2.3
m
/
hr),
heavy
attributed
this
to
a
"
macho
effect."
In
the
second
approach,
3
3
(
2.4­
3.8
m
/
hr),
and
very
heavy
(
3.8
m
/
hr
or
higher)
a
regression
analysis
was
conducted
that
related
the
3
3
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1990).
logarithm
of
VR
to
HR.
The
logarithm
of
VR
correlated
Following
the
initial
test,
treadmill
training
sessions
better
with
HR
than
VR
itself
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1990).
were
conducted
on
a
different
day
in
which
7
different
A
limitation
associated
with
this
study
is
that
the
speeds
were
presented,
each
for
3
minutes
in
arbitrary
population
sampled
is
not
representative
of
the
general
U.
S.
order.
VR
was
measured
and
the
subjects
were
given
population.
Also,
ventilation
rates
were
not
presented.
feedback
with
the
four
ventilation
ranges
provided
Training
individuals
to
estimate
their
VR
may
contribute
to
previously.
After
resting,
a
treadmill
testing
session
was
uncertainty
in
the
results
because
the
estimates
are
conducted
in
which
seven
speeds
were
presented
in
subjective.
Another
limitation
is
that
calibration
data
were
different
arbitrary
order
from
the
training
session.
VR
was
not
obtained
at
extreme
conditions;
therefore,
the
VR/
HR
measured
and
each
subject
estimated
their
own
ventilation
relationship
obtained
may
be
biased.
An
additional
level
at
each
speed.
The
correct
level
was
then
revealed
to
limitation
is
that
training
subjects
may
be
too
laboreach
subject
after
his/
her
own
estimate.
Subsequently,
two
intensive
for
widespread
use
in
exposure
assessment
3­
hour
outdoor
supervised
exercise
sessions
were
studies.
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
HR
recordings
conducted
in
the
summer
on
two
consecutive
days.
Each
are
useful
in
predicting
ventilation
rates
which
in
turn
are
hour
consisted
of
15
minutes
each
of
rest,
slow
walking,
useful
in
estimating
exposure.
jogging,
and
fast
walking.
The
subjects'
ventilation
level
and
VR
were
recorded;
however,
no
feedback
was
given
to
the
subjects.
Electrocardiograms
were
recorded
via
direct
connection
or
telemetry
and
HR
was
measured
concurrently
with
ventilation
measurement
for
all
treadmill
sessions.
The
second
approach
consisted
of
two
protocol
phases
(
indoor/
outdoor
exercise
sessions
and
field
testing).
Twenty
outdoor
adult
workers
between
19­
50
years
old
were
recruited.
Indoor
and
outdoor
supervised
exercises
similar
to
the
protocols
in
the
first
approach
were
conducted;
however,
there
were
no
feedbacks.
Also,
in
this
approach,
electrocardiograms
were
recorded
and
HR
was
measured
concurrently
with
VR.
During
the
field
testing
phase,
subjects
were
trained
to
record
their
activities
during
three
different
24­
hour
periods
during
one
week.
These
periods
included
their
most
active
working
and
nonworking
days.
HR
was
measured
quasi­
continuously
during
the
24­
hour
periods
that
activities
were
recorded.
The
subjects
recorded
in
a
diary
all
changes
in
physical
activity,
location,
and
exercise
levels
during
waking
hours.
Selfestimated
activities
in
supervised
exercises
and
field
studies
were
categorized
as
slow
(
resting,
slow
walking
or
equivalent),
medium
(
fast
walking
or
equivalent),
and
fast
(
jogging
or
equivalent).
Inhalation
rates
were
not
presented
in
this
study.
In
the
first
approach,
about
68
percent
of
all
self­
estimates
were
correct
for
the
9
subjects
sampled
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1990).
Inaccurate
self­
estimates
occurred
in
the
younger
male
population
who
were
highly
physically
fit
and
were
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1991)
­
Activity
Patterns
in
a
Panel
of
Outdoor
Workers
Exposed
to
Oxidant
Pollution
­
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1991)
investigated
summer
activity
patterns
in
20
adult
volunteers
with
potentially
high
exposure
to
ambient
oxidant
pollution.
The
selected
volunteer
subjects
were
15
men
and
5
women
ages
19­
50
years
from
the
Los
Angeles
area.
All
volunteers
worked
outdoors
at
least
10
hours
per
week.
The
experimental
approach
involved
two
stages:
(
1)
indirect
objective
estimation
of
VR
from
HR
measurements;
and
(
2)
self
estimation
of
inhalation/
ventilation
rates
recorded
by
subjects
in
diaries
during
their
normal
activities.
The
approach
consisted
of
calibrating
the
relationship
between
VR
and
HR
for
each
test
subject
in
controlled
exercise;
monitoring
by
subjects
of
their
own
normal
activities
with
diaries
and
electronic
HR
recorders;
and
then
relating
VR
with
the
activities
described
in
the
diaries
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).
Calibration
tests
were
conducted
for
indoor
and
outdoor
supervised
exercises
to
determine
individual
relationships
between
VR
and
HR.
Indoors,
each
subject
was
tested
on
a
treadmill
at
rest
and
at
increasing
speeds.
HR
and
VR
were
measured
at
the
third
minute
at
each
3­
minute
interval
speed.
In
addition,
subjects
were
tested
while
walking
a
90­
meter
course
in
a
corridor
at
3
self­
selected
speeds
(
normal,
slower
than
normal,
and
faster
than
normal)
for
3
minutes.
Two
outdoor
testing
sessions
(
one
hour
each)
were
conducted
for
each
subject,
7
days
apart.
Subjects
exercised
on
a
260­
meter
asphalt
course.
A
session
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
20
August
1997
involved
15
minutes
each
of
rest,
slow
walking,
jogging,
subject
wore
Heart
Watches
which
recorded
their
HR
once
and
fast
walking
during
the
first
hour.
The
sequence
was
per
minute
during
the
field
study.
Ventilation
rates
were
also
repeated
during
the
second
hour.
HR
and
VR
estimated
for
the
following
categories:
sleep,
slow,
medium,
measurements
were
recorded
starting
at
the
8th
minute
of
and
fast.
each
15­
minute
segment.
Following
the
calibration
tests,
a
Calibration
data
were
fit
to
the
equation
log
(
VR)
=
field
study
was
conducted
in
which
subject's
self­
monitored
intercept
+
(
slope
x
HR),
each
individual's
intercept
and
their
activities
by
filling
out
activity
diary
booklets,
self­
slope
were
determined
separately
to
provide
a
specific
estimated
their
breathing
rates,
and
their
HR.
Breathing
equation
that
predicts
each
subject's
VR
from
measured
HR
rates
were
defined
as
sleep,
slow
(
slow
or
normal
walking);
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).
The
average
measured
VRs
were
medium
(
fast
walking);
and
fast
(
running)
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
0.48,
0.9,
1.68,
and
4.02
m
/
hr
for
rest,
slow
walking
or
1991).
Changes
in
location,
activity,
or
breathing
rates
normal
walking,
fast
walking
and
jogging,
respectively
during
three
24­
hr
periods
within
a
week
were
recorded.
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).
Collectively,
the
diary
recordings
These
periods
included
their
most
active
working
and
non­
showed
that
sleep
occupied
about
33
percent
of
the
subject's
working
days.
Each
time;
slow
activity
59
percent;
medium
activity
7
percent;
3
and
fast
activity
1
percent.
The
diary
data
covered
an
average
of
69
hours
per
subject
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).
Table
5­
19
presents
the
distribution
pattern
of
predicted
ventilation
rates
and
equivalent
ventilation
rates
(
EVR)
obtained
at
the
four
activity
levels.
EVR
was
defined
as
the
VR
per
square
meter
of
body
surface
area,
and
also
as
a
percentage
of
the
subjects
average
VR
over
the
entire
field
monitoring
period
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).

Table
5­
19.
Distribution
Pattern
of
Predicted
VR
and
EVR
(
equivalent
ventilation
rate)
for
20
Outdoor
Workers
VR
(
m
/
hr)
EVR
(
m
/
hr/
m
body
surface)
3
a
b
3
2
Self­
Reported
Arithmetic
Geometric
Arithmetic
Geometric
Activity
Level
N
Mean
±
SD
Mean
±
SD
Mean
±
SD
Mean
±
SD
c
Sleep
18,597
0.42
±
0.16
0.39
±
0.08
0.23
±
0.08
0.22
±
0.08
Slow
41,745
0.71
±
0.4
0.65
±
0.09
0.38
±
0.20
0.35
±
0.09
Medium
3,898
0.84
±
0.47
0.76
±
0.09
0.48
±
0.24
0.44
±
0.09
Fast
572
2.63
±
2.16
1.87
±
0.14
1.42
±
1.20
1.00
±
0.14
Percentile
Rankings,
VR
1
5
10
50
90
95
99
99.9
Sleep
0.18
0.18
0.24
0.36
0.66
0.72
0.90
1.20
Slow
0.30
0.36
0.36
0.66
1.08
1.32
1.98
4.38
Medium
0.36
0.42
0.48
0.72
1.32
1.68
2.64
3.84
Fast
0.42
0.54
0.60
1.74
5.70
6.84
9.18
10.26
Percentile
Rankings,
EVR
1
5
10
50
90
95
99
99.9
Sleep
0.12
0.12
0.12
0.24
0.36
0.36
0.48
0.60
Slow
0.18
0.18
0.24
0.36
0.54
0.66
1.08
2.40
Medium
0.18
0.24
0.30
0.42
0.72
0.90
1.38
2.28
Fast
0.24
0.30
0.36
0.90
3.24
3.72
4.86
5.52
Data
presented
by
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1991)
in
liters/
minute
were
converted
to
m
/
hr.
a
3
EVR
=
VR
per
square
meter
of
body
surface
area.
b
Number
of
minutes
with
valid
appearing
heart
rate
records
and
corresponding
daily
records
of
breathing
rate.
c
Source:
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
21
The
overall
mean
predicted
VR
was
0.42
m
/
hr
for
sleep;
substantially
misleading
in
individual
cases.
Another
3
0.71
m
/
hr
for
slow
activity;
0.84
m
/
hr
for
medium
activity;
limitation
of
this
study
is
that
elevated
HR
data
of
slow
3
3
and
2.63
m
/
hr
for
fast
activity.
activity
at
the
second
hour
of
the
exercise
session
reflect
3
The
mean
predicted
VR
and
standard
deviation,
and
the
persistent
effects
of
exercise
and/
or
heat
stress.
Therefore,
percentage
of
time
spent
in
each
combination
of
VR,
predictions
of
VR
from
the
VR/
HR
relationship
may
be
activity
type
(
essential
and
non­
essential),
and
location
biased.
(
indoor
and
outdoor)
are
presented
in
Table
5­
20.
Essential
activities
include
income­
related
work,
household
chores,
child
care,
study
and
other
school
activities,
personal
care
and
destination­
oriented
travel.
Non­
essential
activities
include
sports
and
active
leisure,
passive
leisure,
some
travel,
and
social
or
civic
activities
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991).
Table
5­
20
shows
that
inhalation
rates
were
higher
outdoors
than
indoors
at
slow,
medium,
and
fast
activity
levels.
Also,
inhalation
rates
were
higher
for
outdoor
non­
essential
activities
than
for
indoor
non­
essential
activity
levels
at
slow,
medium,
and
fast
self­
reported
breathing
rates
(
Table
5­
20).
An
advantage
of
this
study
is
that
subjective
activity
diary
data
can
provide
exposure
modelers
with
useful
rough
estimates
of
VR
for
groups
of
generally
healthy
people.
A
limitation
of
this
study
is
that
the
results
obtained
show
high
within­
person
and
between­
person
variability
in
VR
at
each
diary­
recorded
level,
indicating
that
VR
estimates
from
diary
reports
could
potentially
be
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1992)
­
Effectiveness
of
Training
Subjects
to
Estimate
Their
Level
of
Ventilation
­
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1992)
conducted
a
study
where
nine
non­
sedentary
subjects
in
good
health
were
trained
on
a
treadmill
to
estimate
their
own
ventilation
rates
at
four
activity
levels:
low,
medium,
heavy,
and
very
heavy.
The
purpose
of
the
study
was
to
train
the
subjects
self­
estimation
of
ventilation
in
the
field
and
assess
the
effectiveness
of
the
training
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1992).
The
subjects
included
3
females
and
6
males
between
21
to
37
years
of
age.
The
tests
were
conducted
in
four
stages.
First,
an
initial
treadmill
pretest
was
conducted
indoors
at
various
speeds
until
the
four
ventilation
levels
were
experienced
by
each
subject;
VR
was
measured
and
feedback
was
given
to
the
subjects.
Second,
two
treadmill
training
sessions
which
involved
seven
3­
minute
segments
of
varying
speeds
based
on
initial
tests
were
conducted;
VR
was
measured
and
feedback
was
given
to
the
subjects.
Another
similar
session
was
conducted;
however,
the
subjects
estimated
Table
5­
20.
Distribution
Pattern
of
Inhalation
Rate
by
Location
and
Activity
Type
for
20
Outdoor
Workers
Location
Activity
Type
Activity
Level
%
of
Time
±
SD
%
of
Avg.
a
Self­
reported
Inhalation
rate
(
m
/
hr)
3
b
c
Indoor
Essential
Sleep
28.7
0.42
±
0.12
69
±
15
Slow
29.5
0.72
±
0.36
106
±
43
Medium
2.4
0.72
±
0.30
129
±
38
Fast
0
0
0
Indoor
Non­
essential
Slow
20.4
0.66
±
0.36
98
±
36
Medium
0.9
0.78
±
0.30
120
±
50
Fast
0.2
1.86
±
0.96
278
±
124
Outdoor
Essential
Slow
11.3
0.78
±
0.36
117
±
42
Medium
1.8
0.84
±
0.54
130
±
56
Fast
0
0
0
Outdoor
Non­
essential
Slow
3.2
0.90
±
0.66
136
±
90
Medium
0.8
1.26
±
0.60
213
±
91
Fast
0.7
2.82
±
2.28
362
±
275
Essential
activities
include
income­
related,
work,
household
chores,
child
care,
study
and
other
school
activities,
personal
care,
and
destination­
a
oriented
travel;
Non­
essential
activities
include
sports
and
active
leisure,
passive
leisure,
some
travel,
and
social
or
civic
activities.
Data
presented
by
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1991)
in
liters/
mintue
were
converted
to
m
/
hr.
b
3
Statistic
was
calculated
by
converting
each
VR
for
a
given
subject
to
a
percentage
of
her/
his
overall
average.
c
Source:
Adapted
from
Shamoo
et
al.,
(
1991).
60
min
hr
x
m3
1000L
x
L
min
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
22
August
1997
their
own
ventilation
level
during
the
last
20
seconds
of
each
segment
and
VR
was
measured
during
the
last
minute
of
each
segment.
Immediate
feedback
was
given
to
the
subject's
estimate;
and
the
third
and
fourth
stages
involved
2
outdoor
sessions
of
3
hours
each.
Each
hour
comprised
15
minutes
each
of
rest,
slow
walking,
jogging,
and
fast
walking.
The
subjects
estimated
their
own
ventilation
level
at
the
middle
of
each
segment.
The
subject's
estimate
was
verified
by
a
respirometer
which
measured
VR
in
the
middle
of
each
15­
minute
activity.
No
feedback
was
given
to
the
subject.
The
overall
percent
correct
score
obtained
for
all
ventilation
levels
was
68
percent
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1992).
Therefore,
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1992)
concluded
that
this
training
protocol
was
effective
in
training
subjects
to
correctly
estimate
their
minute
ventilation
levels.
For
this
handbook,
inhalation
rates
were
analyzed
from
the
raw
data
provided
by
Shamoo
et
al.
(
1992).
Table
5­
21
presents
the
mean
inhalation
rates
obtained
from
this
analysis
at
four
ventilation
levels
in
two
microenvironments
(
i.
e.,
indoors
and
outdoors)
for
all
subjects.
The
mean
inhalation
rates
for
all
subjects
were
0.93,
1.92,
3.01,
4.80
m
/
hr
for
low,
medium,
heavy,
and
very
heavy
activities,
3
respectively.

Table
5­
21.
Actual
Inhalation
Rates
Measured
at
Four
Ventilation
Levels
Subject
Location
Mean
Inhalation
Rate
(
m
/
hr)
a
3
a
Low
Medium
Heavy
Heavy
Very
All
Indoor
1.23
1.83
3.13
4.13
subjects
(
Treadmill
post)
Outdoor
0.88
1.96
2.93
4.90
Total
0.93
1.92
3.01
4.80
Original
data
were
presented
in
L/
min.
Conversion
to
m
/
hr
was
a
3
obtained
as
follows:
among
both
men
and
women
of
different
age
groups.
All
Source:
Adapted
from
Shamoo
et
al.,
1992
The
population
sample
size
used
in
this
study
was
small
and
was
not
selected
to
represent
the
general
U.
S.
population.
The
training
approach
employed
may
not
be
cost
effective
because
it
was
labor
intensive;
therefore,
this
approach
may
not
be
viable
in
field
studies
especially
for
field
studies
within
large
sample
sizes.
AIHC
(
1994)
­
The
Exposure
Factors
Sourcebook
­
AIHC
(
1994)
recommends
an
average
adult
inhalation
rate
of
18
m
/
day
and
presents
values
for
children
of
various
3
ages.
These
recommendations
were
derived
from
data
presented
in
U.
S.
EPA
(
1989).
The
newer
study
by
Layton
(
1993)
was
not
considered.
In
addition,
the
Sourcebook
presents
probability
distributions
derived
by
Brorby
and
Finley
(
1993).
For
each
distribution,
the
@
Risk
formula
is
provided
for
direct
use
in
the
@
Risk
simulation
software
(
Palisade,
1992).
The
organization
of
this
document
makes
it
very
convenient
to
use
in
support
of
Monte
Carlo
analysis.
The
reviews
of
the
supporting
studies
are
very
brief
with
little
analysis
of
their
strengths
and
weaknesses.
The
Sourcebook
has
been
classified
as
a
relevant
rather
than
key
study
because
it
is
not
the
primary
source
for
the
data
used
to
make
recommendations
in
this
document.
The
Sourcebook
is
very
similar
to
this
document
in
the
sense
that
it
summarizes
exposure
factor
data
and
recommends
values.
As
such,
it
is
clearly
relevant
as
an
alternative
information
source
on
inhalation
rates
as
well
as
other
exposure
factors.

5.2.4.
Recommendations
In
the
Ozone
Criteria
Document
prepared
by
the
U.
S.
EPA
Office
of
Environmental
Criteria
and
Assessment,
the
EPA
identified
the
collapsed
range
of
activities
and
its
corresponding
VR
as
follows:
light
exercise
(
V
<
23
L/
min
or
1.4
m
/
hr);
moderate/
medium
E
3
exercise
(
V
=
24­
43
L/
min
or
1.4­
2.6
m
/
hr);
heavy
E
3
exercise
(
V
=
43­
63
L/
min
or
2.6­
3.8
m
/
hr);
and
very
E
3
heavy
exercise
(
V
>
64
L/
min
or
3.8
m
/
hr),
(
Adams,
E
3
1993).
Recent
peer
reviewed
scientific
papers
and
an
EPA
report
comprise
the
studies
that
were
evaluated
in
this
Chapter.
These
studies
were
conducted
in
the
United
States
are
widely
available.
The
confidence
ratings
in
the
inhalation
rate
recommendations
are
shown
in
Table
5­
22.
Each
study
focused
on
ventilation
rates
and
factors
that
may
affect
them.
Studies
were
conducted
among
randomly
selected
volunteers.
Efforts
were
made
to
include
men,
women,
different
age
groups,
and
different
kinds
of
activities.
Measurement
methods
are
indirect,
but
reproducible.
Methods
are
well
described
(
except
for
questionnaires)
and
experimental
error
is
well
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
23
Table
5­
22.
Confidence
in
Inhalation
Rate
Recommendations
Considerations
Rationale
Rating
Study
Elements
C
Peer
Review
Studies
are
from
peer
reviewed
journal
articles
and
an
EPA
peer
reviewed
High
report.
C
Accessibility
Studies
in
journals
have
wide
circulation.
High
EPA
reports
are
available
from
the
National
Technical
Information
Service.
C
Reproducibility
Information
on
questionnaires
and
interviews
were
not
provided.
Medium
C
Focus
on
factor
of
interest
Studies
focused
on
ventilation
rates
and
factors
influencing
them.
High
C
Data
pertinent
to
U.
S.
Studies
conducted
in
the
U.
S.
High
C
Primary
data
Both
data
collection
and
re­
analysis
of
existing
data
occurred.
Medium
C
Currency
Recent
studies
were
evaluated.
High
C
Adequacy
of
data
collection
period
Effort
was
made
to
collect
data
over
time.
High
C
Validity
of
approach
Measurements
were
made
by
indirect
methods.
Medium
C
Representativeness
of
the
population
An
effort
has
been
made
to
consider
age
and
gender,
but
not
systematically.
Medium
C
Characterization
of
variability
An
effort
has
been
made
to
address
age
and
gender,
but
not
systematically.
High
C
Lack
of
bias
in
study
design
Subjects
were
selected
randomly
from
volunteers
and
measured
in
the
same
High
way.
C
Measurement
error
Measurement
error
is
well
documented
by
statistics,
but
procedures
measure
Medium
factor
indirectly.
Other
Elements
C
Number
of
studies
Five
key
studies
and
six
relevant
studies
were
evaluated.
C
Agreement
between
researchers
There
is
general
agreement
among
researchers
using
different
experimental
High
methods.
Overall
Rating
Several
studies
exist
that
attempt
to
estimate
inhalation
rates
according
to
High
age,
gender
and
activity.

documented.
There
is
general
agreement
with
these
yrs),
and
older
adults
(
65+
yrs).
The
daily
average
estimates
among
researchers.
inhalation
rates
for
long
term
exposure
for
adults
are:
11.3
The
recommended
inhalation
rates
for
adults,
m
/
day
for
women
and
15.2
m
/
day
for
men.
These
values
children,
and
outdoor
workers/
athletes
are
based
on
the
key
are
averages
of
the
inhalation
rates
provided
for
males
and
studies
described
in
this
chapter
(
Table
5­
23).
Different
females
in
each
of
the
three
approaches
of
Layton
(
1993)
survey
designs
and
populations
were
utilized
in
the
studies
(
Tables
5­
11
through
5­
14).
An
upper
percentile
is
not
described
in
this
Chapter.
A
summary
of
these
designs,
data
recommended.
Additional
research
and
analysis
of
activity
generated,
and
their
limitations/
advantages
are
presented
in
pattern
data
and
dietary
data
in
the
future
is
necessary
to
Table
5­
24.
Excluding
the
study
by
Layton
(
1993),
the
attempt
to
calculate
upper
percentiles.
population
surveyed
in
all
of
the
key
studies
described
in
The
recommended
value
for
the
general
population
this
report
were
limited
to
the
Los
Angeles
area.
This
average
inhalation
rate,
11.3
m
/
day
for
women
and
15.2
regional
population
may
not
represent
the
general
U.
S.
m
/
day
for
men,
is
different
than
the
20
m
/
day
which
has
population
and
may
result
in
biases.
However,
based
on
commonly
been
assumed
in
past
EPA
risk
assessments.
other
aspects
of
the
study
design,
these
studies
were
In
addition,
recommendations
are
presented
for
various
ages
selected
as
the
basis
for
recommended
inhalation
rates.
and
special
populations
(
athletes,
outdoor
workers)
which
The
selection
of
inhalation
rates
to
be
used
for
also
differ
from
20
m
/
day.
Assessors
are
encouraged
to
use
exposure
assessments
depends
on
the
age
of
the
exposed
values
which
most
accurately
reflect
the
exposed
population
and
the
specific
activity
levels
of
this
population
population.
during
various
exposure
scenarios.
The
recommended
For
exposure
scenarios
where
the
distribution
of
values
for
adults,
children
(
including
infants),
and
outdoor
activity
patterns
is
known,
the
following
results,
calculated
workers/
athletes
for
use
in
various
exposure
scenarios
are
from
the
studies
referenced
are
shown
in
Table
5­
25.
Based
discussed
below.
These
rates
were
calculated
by
averaging
on
these
key
studies,
the
following
recommendations
are
the
inhalation
rates
for
each
activity
level
from
the
various
made:
for
short
term
exposures
in
key
studies
(
see
Table
5­
25).
Adults
(
19­
65+
yrs)
­
Adults
in
this
recommendation
include
young
to
middle
age
adults
(
19­
64
3
3
3
3
3
3
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
24
August
1997
Table
5­
23.
Summary
of
Recommended
Values
for
Inhalation
Population
Mean
Upper
Percentile
Long­
term
Exposures
Infants
<
1
year
4.5
m
/
day
­­­

Children
1­
2
years
6.8
m
/
day
­­­
3­
5
years
8.3
m
/
day
­­­
6­
8
years
10
m
/
day
­­­
9­
11
years
males
14
m
/
day
­­­
females
13
m
/
day
­­­
12­
14
years
males
15
m
/
day
­­­
females
12
m
/
day
­­­
15­
18
years
males
17
m
/
day
­­­
females
12
m
/
day
­­­
summarized
in
Table
5­
27.
For
short
term
exposures,
the
Adults
(
19­
65+
yrs)
females
11.3
m
/
day
­­­
males
15.2
m
/
day
­­­
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Short­
term
Exposures
Adults
Rest
0.4
m
/
hr
­­­
Sedentary
Activities
0.5
m
/
hr
­­­
Light
Activities
1.0
m
/
hr
­­­
Moderate
Activities
1.6
m
/
hr
­­­
Heavy
Activities
3.2
m
/
hr
­­­
3
3
3
3
3
Children
Rest
0.3
m
/
hr
­­­
Sedentary
Activities
0.4
m
/
hr
­­­
Light
Activities
1.0
m
/
hr
­­­
Moderate
Activities
1.2
m
/
hr
­­­
Heavy
Activities
1.9
m
/
hr
­­­

Outdoor
Workers
Hourly
Average
1.3
m
/
hr
3.3
m
/
hr
Slow
Activities
1.1
m
/
hr
Moderate
Activities
1.5
m
/
hr
Heavy
Activities
2.5
m
/
hr
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
Note:
See
Tables
5­
25,
5­
26,
and
5­
27
for
reference
studies.

which
distribution
of
activity
patterns
are
specified,
the
recommended
average
rates
are
0.4
m
/
hr
during
rest;
0.5
3
m
/
hr
for
sedentary
activities;
1.0
m
/
hr
for
light
activities;
3
3
1.6
m
/
hr
for
moderate
activities;
and
3.2
m
/
hr
for
heavy
3
3
activities.
Children
(
18
yrs
old
or
less
including
infants)
­
For
the
purpose
of
this
recommendation,
children
are
defined
as
males
and
females
between
the
ages
of
1­
18
years
old,
while
infants
are
individuals
less
than
1
year
old.
The
inhalation
rates
for
children
are
presented
below
according
to
different
exposure
scenarios.
The
daily
inhalation
rates
for
long­
term
dose
assessments,
are
based
on
the
first
approach
of
Layton
(
1993)
(
Table
5­
11)
and
are
summarized
in
Table
5­
26.
Based
on
the
key
study
results
(
i.
e.,
Layton,
1993),
the
recommended
daily
inhalation
rate
for
infants
(
children
less
than
1
yr),
during
long­
term
dose
assessments
is
4.5
m
/
day.
For
children
1­
2
years
old,
3­
5
years
old,
and
3
6­
8
years
old,
the
recommended
daily
inhalation
rates
are
6.8
m
/
day,
8.3
m
/
day,
and
10
m
/
day,
respectively.
3
3
3
Recommended
values
for
children
aged
9­
11
years
are
14
m
/
day
for
males
and
13
m
/
day
for
females.
For
children
3
3
aged
12­
14
years
and
15­
18
years,
the
recommended
values
are
shown
in
Table
5­
23.
For
short­
term
exposures
for
children
aged
18
years
and
under,
in
which
activity
patterns
are
known,
the
data
are
recommended
average
hourly
inhalation
rates
are
based
on
these
key
studies.
They
are
averaged
over
each
activity
held
as
follows:
0.3
m
/
hr
during
rest;
0.4
m
/
hr
for
sedentary
3
3
activities;
1.0
m
/
hr
for
light
activities;
1.2
m
/
hr
for
3
3
moderate
activities;
and
1.9
m
/
hr
for
heavy
activities.
The
3
recommended
short­
term
exposure
data
also
include
infants
(
less
than
1
yr).
These
values
represent
averages
of
the
activity
level
data
from
key
studies
(
Table
5­
27).
Outdoor
Worker
­
Inhalation
rate
data
for
outdoor
workers/
athlete
are
limited.
However,
based
on
the
key
studies
(
Linn
et
al.,
1992
and
1993),
the
recommended
average
hourly
inhalation
rate
for
outdoor
workers
is
1.3
m
/
hr
and
the
upper­
percentile
rate
is
3.3
m
/
hr
(
see
3
3
Tables
5­
5
and
5­
8).
This
is
calculated
as
the
weighted
mean
of
the
99th
percentile
values
reported
for
the
individuals
on
Panels
1
and
7
in
Tables
5­
5
and
the
19
subjects
in
Table
5­
8.
The
recommended
average
inhalation
rates
for
outdoor
workers
based
on
the
activity
levels
categorized
as
slow
(
light
activities),
medium
(
moderate
activities),
and
fast
(
heavy
activities)
are
1.1
m
/
hr,
1.5
m
/
hr,
and
2.5
m
/
hr,
respectively.
These
values
3
3
3
are
based
on
the
data
from
Linn
et
al.
(
1992
and
1993)
and
are
the
weighted
mean
of
the
values
for
the
individuals
on
Panels
1
and
7
in
Table
5­
5
and
the
19
outdoor
workers
in
Table
5­
9.
Inhalation
rates
may
be
higher
among
outdoor
workers/
athletes
because
levels
of
activity
outdoors
may
be
higher.
Therefore,
this
subpopulation
group
may
be
more
susceptible
to
air
pollutants
and
are
considered
a
"
high­
risk"
subgroup
(
Shamoo
et
al.,
1991;
Linn
et
al.,
1992).
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
25
Table
5­
24.
Summary
of
Inhalation
Rate
Studies
Study
Population
Surveyed
Survey
Time
Period
Data
Generated
Limitations/
Advantages
KEY
INHALATION
RATE
STUDIES:

Adams,
1993
n=
160,
ages
6­
77;
n
=
40,
ages
3­
12.
Three
25
min
phases
of
resting
protocol
in
the
lab
6
mins
of
active
protocols
in
the
lab.
30
min
phases
of
field
protocols
repeated
once.
Mean
values
of
IR
for
adult
males
and
females
and
children
by
their
activity
levels.
HR
correlated
poorly
with
IR.

Layton,
1993
NFCS
survey:
n
.
30,000;
NHANES
survey:

n
.
20,000
Time
Activity
survey:
n
.
2,126
Daily
IRs;
IRs
at
5
activity
levels;

and
IR
for
short­
term
exposures
at
5
activity
levels.
Reported
food
biases
in
the
dietary
surveys
employed;
time
activity
survey
was
based
on
recall.

Linn
et
al.,
1992
Panel
1
­
20
healthy
outdoor
workers,
ages
19­

50;
Panel
2
­
17
healthy
elementary
school
students,
ages
10­
12;
Panel
3
­
19
healthy
high
school
students,
ages
13­
17;
Panel
4
­
49
adult
asthmatics,
ages
18­
50;
Panel
5
­
24
adult
asthmatics,
ages
19­
46;
Panel
6
­
13
young
asthmatics,
ages
11­
16;
Panel
7
­
7
construction
workers,
ages
26­
34.
Late
spring
and
early
autumn.
3
diary
days.
Construction
workers'
diary
day.
Mean
and
upper
estimates
of
IR;

Mean
IR
at
3
activity
levels.
Small
sample
size;
Calibration
data
not
obtained
over
full
HR
range;
activities
based
on
short­
term
diary
data.

Linn
et
al.,
1993
n=
19
construction
workers.
(
Mid­
July­
early
November,
1991)

Diary
recordings
before
work,
during
work
and
break
times
Distribution
patterns
of
hourly
IR
by
activity
level.
Small
sample
population
size;
breathing
rates
subjective
in
nature;
activities
based
on
short­
term
diary
data.

Spier
et
al.,
1992
n=
36
students,
ages
10­
17.
(
Late
September
­
October)
Involved
3
consecutive
days
of
diary
recording
Distribution
patterns
of
hourly
IR
by
activity
levels
and
location
Activities
based
on
short­
term
diary
data;

self­
estimated
breathing
rate
by
younger
population
was
biased;
small
sample
population
size.

RELEVANT
INHALATION
RATE
STUDIES:

ICRP,
1974
Based
on
data
from
other
references
­­
Reference
daily
IR
for
adult
females,

adult
males,
children
(
10
yrs),
and
infant
(
1
yr)
Validity
and
accuracy
of
data
set
employed
not
defined;
IR
was
estimated
not
measured.

Shamoo
et
al.,
1990
n=
9
volunteer
workers
ages
21­
37,
n=
20
outdoor
workers,
19­
50
years
old.
Involved
3­
min
indoor
session/
two
3­

hr
outdoor
session
at
4
activity
levels
No
IR
data
presented.
No
useful
data
were
presented
for
dose
assessments
studies.

Shamoo
et
al.,
1991
n=
20
outdoor
workers,
ages
19­
50
Diary
recordings
of
three
24­
hr.

periods
within
a
week.
Distribution
patterns
of
IR
and
EVR
by
activity
levels
and
location.
Small
sample
size;
short­
term
diary
data.

Shamoo
et
al.,
1992
n=
9
non­
sedentary
subjects,
ages
21­
37.
3­
min.
intervals
of
indoor
exercises/
two
3­
hr
outdoor
exercise
sessions
at
4
activity
levels.
Actual
measured
ventilation
rates
presented.
Small
sample
size;
training
approach
may
not
be
cost­
effective;
VR
obtained
for
outdoor
workers
which
are
sensitive
subpopulation.

U.
S.
EPA,
1985
Based
on
data
from
several
literature
sources
­­
Estimated
IR
for
adult
males,
adult
females
and
children
(
ages
6
and
10)

by
various
activity
levels.
Validity
and
accuracy
of
data
set
employed
not
defined;
IR
was
estimated
not
measured.

Note:
IR
=
inhalation
rate;
HR
=
heart
rate;
EVR
=
equivalent
ventilation
rate.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5­
26
August
1997
Table
5­
25.
Summary
of
Adult
Inhalation
Rates
for
Short­
Term
Exposure
Studies
Arithmetic
Mean
(
m
/
hr)
3
Reference
Activity
Level
Rest
Sedentary
Light
Moderate
High
0.5
0.5
1.4
2.4
3.3
Adams,
1993
(
Lab
protocols)

­­
0.6
1.2
1.8
­­
Adams,
1993
(
Field
protocols)

0.4
0.4
0.7
1.4
3.6
Layton,
1993
(
Short­
term
exposure)

0.4
­­
0.6
1.5
3.0
Layton,
1993
(
3rd
approach)

­­
­­
1.0
1.6
3.0
Linn
et
al.,
1992
Table
5­
26.
Summary
of
Children's
(
18
years
old
or
less)
Inhalation
Rates
for
Long­
Term
Exposure
Studiesa
Arithmetic
Mean
(
m
/
day)
3
Age
Males
Females
Females
Reference
Males
and
less
than
1
yr
­­
­­
4.5
Layton,
1993
1­
2
years
­­
­­
6.8
Layton,
1993
3­
5
years
­­
­­
8.3
Layton,
1993
6­
8
years
­­
­­
10
Layton,
1993
9­
11
years
14
13
­­
Layton,
1993
12­
14
years
15
12
­­
Layton,
1993
15­
18
years
17
12
­­
Layton,
1993
Layton,
1993
1st
approach.
a
Table
5­
27.
Summary
of
Children's
Inhalation
Rates
for
Short­
Term
Exposure
Studies
Arithmetic
Mean
(
m
/
hr)
3
Reference
Activity
Level
Rest
Sedentary
Light
Moderate
High
0.4
0.4
0.8
­­
­­
Adams,
1993
(
Lab
protocols)

­­
­­
­­
0.9
­­
Adams,
1993
(
Field
protocols)

0.2
0.3
0.5
1.0
2.5
Layton,
1993
(
Short­
term
data)

­­
­­
1.8
2.0
2.2
Spier
et
al.,
1992
(
10­
12
yrs)

­­
­­
0.8
1.0
11
Linn
et
al.,
1992
(
10­
12
yrs)
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Chapter
5
­
Inhalation
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5­
27
5.3.
REFERENCES
FOR
CHAPTER
5
Adams,
W.
C.
(
1993)
Measurement
of
breathing
rate
and
Sallis,
J.
F.;
Haskell,
W.
L.;
Wood,
P.
D.;
Fortmann,
S.
P.;
volume
in
routinely
performed
daily
activities,
Final
Rogers,
T.;
Blair,
S.
N.;
Paffenbarger,
Jr.,
R.
S.
(
1985)
Report.
California
Air
Resources
Board
(
CARB)
Physical
activity
assessment
methodology
in
the
Five­
Contract
No.
A033­
205.
June
1993.
185
pgs.
City
project.
Am.
J.
Epidemiol.
121:
91­
106.
American
Industrial
Health
Council
(
AIHC).
(
1994)
Shamoo,
D.
A.;
Trim,
S.
C.;
Little,
D.
E.;
Linn,
W.
S.;
Exposure
factors
sourcebook.
AIHC,
Washington,
Hackney,
J.
D.
(
1990)
Improved
quantitation
of
air
DC.
pollution
dose
rates
by
improved
estimation
of
Basiotis,
P.
P.;
Thomas,
R.
G.;
Kelsay,
J.
L.;
Mertz,
W.
ventilation
rate.
In:
Total
Exposure
Assessment
(
1989)
Sources
of
variation
in
energy
intake
by
men
Methodology:
A
New
Horizon,
pp.
553­
564.
Air
and
and
women
as
determined
from
one
year's
daily
Waste
Management
Assoc.,
Pittsburgh,
PA.
dietary
records.
Am.
J.
Clin.
Nutr.
50:
448­
453.
Shamoo,
D.
A.;
Johnson,
T.
R.;
Trim,
S.
C.;
Little,
D.
E.;
Benjamin,
G.
S.
(
1988)
"
The
lungs."
In:
Fundamentals
Linn,
W.
S.;
Hackney,
J.
D.
(
1991)
Activity
patterns
in
of
Industrial
Hygiene,
Third
Edition,
Plog,
B.
A.,
ed.
a
panel
of
outdoor
workers
exposed
to
oxidant
Chicago,
IL:
National
Safety
Council,
p.
31­
45.
pollution.
J.
Expos.
Anal.
Environ.
Epidem.
1(
4):
423­
Brorby,
G.;
Finley,
B.
(
1993)
Standard
probability
438.
density
functions
for
routine
use
in
environmental
Shamoo,
D.
A.;
Trim,
S.
C.;
Little,
D.
E.;
Whynot,
J.
D.;
health
risk
assessment.
Presented
at
the
Society
of
Linn,
W.
S.
(
1992)
Effectiveness
of
training
subjects
Risk
Analysis
Meeting,
December
1993,
Savannah,
to
estimate
their
level
of
ventilation.
J.
Occ.
Med.
Tox.
GA.
1(
1):
55­
62.
ICRP.
(
1981)
International
Commission
on
Radiological
Spier,
C.
E.;
Little,
D.
E.;
Trim,
S.
C.;
Johnson,
T.
R.;
Linn,
Protection.
Report
of
the
task
group
on
reference
W.
S.;
Hackney,
J.
D.
(
1992)
Activity
patterns
in
man.
New
York:
Pergammon
Press.
elementary
and
high
school
students
exposed
to
Layton,
D.
W.
(
1993)
Metabolically
consistent
breathing
oxidant
pollution.
J.
Exp.
Anal.
Environ.
Epid.
rates
for
use
in
dose
assessments.
Health
Physics
2(
3):
277­
293.
64(
1):
23­
36.
U.
S.
EPA.
(
1985)
Development
of
statistical
Linn,
W.
S.;
Shamoo,
D.
A.;
Hackney,
J.
D.
(
1992)
distributions
or
ranges
of
standard
factors
used
in
Documentation
of
activity
patterns
in
"
high­
risk"
exposure
assessments.
Washington,
DC:
Office
of
groups
exposed
to
ozone
in
the
Los
Angeles
area.
In:
Health
and
Environmental
Assessment;
EPA
report
Proceedings
of
the
Second
EPA/
AWMA
Conference
No.
EPA
600/
8­
85­
010.
Available
from:
NTIS,
on
Tropospheric
Ozone,
Atlanta,
Nov.
1991.
pp.
701­
Springfield,
VA;
PB85­
242667.
712.
Air
and
Waste
Management
Assoc.,
Pittsburgh,
U.
S.
EPA.
(
1989)
Exposure
factors
handbook.
PA.
Washington,
DC:
Office
of
Research
and
Linn,
W.
S.;
Spier,
C.
E.;
Hackney,
J.
D.
(
1993)
Activity
Development,
Office
of
Health
and
Environmental
patterns
in
ozone­
exposed
construction
workers.
J.
Assessment.
EPA/
600/
18­
89/
043.
Occ.
Med.
Tox.
2(
1):
1­
14.
U.
S.
EPA.
(
1992)
Guidelines
for
exposure
assessment.
Menzel,
D.
B.;
Amdur,
M.
O.
(
1986)
Toxic
responses
of
Washington,
DC:
Office
of
Research
and
the
respiratory
system.
In:
Klaassen,
C.;
Amdur,
Development,
Office
of
Health
and
Environmental
M.
O.;
Doull,
J.,
eds.
Toxicology,
The
Basic
Science
Assessments.
EPA/
600/
Z­
92/
001.
of
Poisons.
3rd
edition.
New
York:
MacMillan
U.
S.
EPA.
(
1994)
Methods
for
derivation
of
inhalation
Publishing
Company.
reference
concentrations
and
application
of
inhalation
Najjar,
M.
F.;
Rowland,
M.
(
1987)
Anthropometric
dosimetry.
Washington,
DC:
Office
of
Health
and
reference
data
and
prevalence
of
overweight:
United
Environmental
Assessment.
EPA/
600/
8­
90/
066F.
States.
1976­
80.
Hyattsville,
MD:
National
Center
for
Health
Statistics.
U.
S.
Department
of
Health
and
Human
Services:
DHHS
Publication
No.
(
PHS)
87­
1688.
Palisade.
(
1992)
@
Risk
User
Guide.
Newfield,
NY:
Palisade
Corporation.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5A­
1
APPENDIX
5A
VENTILATION
DATA
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5A­
3
Table
5A­
1.
Mean
Minute
Ventilation
(
V
,
L/
min)
by
Group
and
Activity
for
Laboratory
Protocols
E
Activity
Young
Children
Children
Adult
Females
Adult
Males
a
Lying
6.19
7.51
7.12
8.93
Sitting
6.48
7.28
7.72
9.30
Standing
6.76
8.49
8.36
10.65
Walking
1.5
mph
10.25
DNP
DNP
DNP
1.875
mph
10.53
DNP
DNP
DNP
2.0
mph
DNP
14.13
DNP
DNP
2.25
mph
11.68
DNP
DNP
DNP
2.5
mph
DNP
15.58
20.32
24.13
3.0
mph
DNP
17.79
24.20
DNP
3.3
mph
DNP
DNP
DNP
27.90
4.0
mph
DNP
DNP
DNP
36.53
Running
3.5
mph
DNP
26.77
DNP
DNP
4.0
mph
DNP
31.35
46.03
DNP
4.5
mph
DNP
37.22
47.86
57.30
5.0
mph
DNP
DNP
50.78
58.45
6.0
mph
DNP
DNP
DNP
65.66
b
b
b
b
Young
Children,
male
and
female
3­
5.9
yr
olds;
Children,
male
and
female
6­
12.9
yr
olds;
Adult
Females,
adolescent,
young
a
to
middle­
aged,
and
older
adult
females;
Adult
Males,
adolescent,
young
to
middle­
aged,
and
older
adult
males;
DNP,
group
did
not
perform
this
protocol
or
N
was
too
small
for
appropriate
mean
comparisons
Older
adults
not
included
in
the
mean
value
since
they
did
not
perform
running
protocol
at
particular
speeds.
b
Source:
Adams,
1993.

Table
5A­
2.
Mean
Minute
Ventilation
(
V
,
L/
min)
by
Group
and
Activity
for
Field
Protocols
E
Activity
Young
Children
Children
Adult
Females
Adult
Males
a
Play
11.31
17.89
DNP
DNP
Car
Driving
DNP
DNP
8.95
10.79
Car
Riding
DNP
DNP
8.19
9.83
Yardwork
DNP
DNP
19.23
26.07
/
31.89
Housework
DNP
DNP
17.38
DNP
Car
Maintenance
DNP
DNP
DNP
23.21
Mowing
DNP
DNP
DNP
36.55
Woodworking
DNP
DNP
DNP
24.42
e
b
c
d
e
e
Young
Children,
male
and
female
3­
5.9
yr
olds;
Children,
male
and
female
6­
12.9
yr
olds;
Adult
Females,
adolescent,
a
young
to
middle­
aged,
and
older
adult
females;
Adult
Males,
adolescent,
young
to
middle­
aged,
and
older
adult
males;
DNP,
group
did
not
perform
this
protocol
or
N
was
too
small
for
appropriate
mean
comparisons;
Mean
value
for
young
to
middle­
aged
adults
only
b
Mean
value
for
older
adults
only
c
Older
adults
not
included
in
the
mean
value
since
they
did
not
perform
this
activity.
d
Adolescents
not
included
in
mean
value
since
they
did
not
perform
this
activity
e
Source:
Adams,
1993.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5A­
4
August
1997
Table
5A­
3.
Characteristics
of
Individual
Subjects:
Anthropometric
Data,
Job
Categories,
Calibration
Results
Subj.
#
Age
(
years)
Ht.
(
in.)
Wt.
(
lb.)
Calibration
Ethnic
Group
Job
Site
HR
Range
r
a
b
c
d
2e
1761
26
71
180
Wht
GCW
Ofc
69­
108
.91
1763
29
63
135
Asn
GCW
Ofc
80­
112
.95
1764
32
71
165
Blk
Car
Ofc
56­
87
.95
1765
30
73
145
Wht
GCW
Ofc
66­
126
.97
1766
31
67
170
His
Car
Ofc
75­
112
.89
1767
34
74
220
Wht
Car
Ofc
59­
114
.98
1768
32
69
155
Blk
GCW
Ofc
62­
152
.95
1769
32
77
230
Wht
Car
Hosp
69­
132
.99
1770
26
70
180
Wht
Car
Hosp
63­
106
.89
1771
39
66
150
Wht
Car
Hosp
88­
118
.91
1772
32
71
260
Wht
Car
Hosp
83­
130
.97
1773
39
69
170
Wht
Irn
Hosp
77­
128
.95
1774
23
68
150
His
Car
Hosp
68­
139
.98
1775
42
67
150
Wht
Irn
Hosp
76­
118
.88
1776
29
70
180
His
Car
Hosp
68­
152
.99
1778
35
76
220
Ind
Car
Hosp
70­
129
.94
1779
40
70
175
Wht
Car
Hosp
72­
140
.99
1780
37
75
242
His
Irn
Hosp
68­
120
.98
1781
38
65
165
His
Lab
Hosp
66­
121
.89
Mean
33
70
181
70­
123
.94
SD
5
4
36
8­
16
.04
Abbreviations
are
interpreted
as
follows.
Ethnic
Group:
Asn
=
Asian­
Pacific,
Blk
=
Black,
His
=
Hispanic,
Ind
=
American
Indian,
Wht
=
a
White
Job:
Car
=
carpenter,
GCW
=
general
construction
worker,
Irn
=
ironworker,
Lab
=
laborer
b
Site:
Hosp
=
hospital
buidling,
Ofc
=
medical
office
complex.
Calibration
data
c
HR
range
=
range
of
heart
rates
in
calibration
study
d
r
=
coefficient
of
determination
(
proportion
of
ventilation
rate
variability
explainable
by
heart
rate
variability
under
calibration­
study
e
2
conditions,
using
quadratic
prediction
equation).
Source:
Linn
et
al.,
1993.

Table
5A­
4.
Statistics
of
the
Age/
Gender
Cohorts
Used
to
Develop
Regression
Equations
for
Predicting
Basal
Metabolic
Rates
(
BMR)

Gender/
Age
BMR
Body
Weight
(
y)
MJ
d
±
SD
CV
(
kg)
N
BMR
Equation
r
­
1
a
b
c
d
Males
Under
3
3
to
<
10
10
to
<
18
18
to
<
30
30
to
<
60
60
+
1.51
0.918
0.61
6.6
162
0.249
bw
­
0.127
0.95
4.14
0.498
0.12
21
338
0.095
bw
+
2.110
0.83
5.86
1.171
0.20
42
734
0.074
bw
+
2.754
0.93
6.87
0.843
0.12
63
2879
0.063
bw
+
2.896
0.65
6.75
0.872
0.13
64
646
0.048
bw
+
3.653
0.6
5.59
0.928
0.17
62
50
0.049
bw
+
2.459
0.71
Females
Under
3
3
to
<
10
10
to
<
18
18
to
<
30
30
to
<
60
60
+
1.54
0.915
0.59
6.9
137
0.244
bw
­
0.130
0.96
3.85
0.493
0.13
21
413
0.085
bw
+
2.033
0.81
5.04
0.780
0.15
38
575
0.056
bw
+
2.898
0.8
5.33
0.721
0.14
53
829
0.062
bw
+
2.036
0.73
5.62
0.630
0.11
61
372
0.034
bw
+
3.538
0.68
4.85
0.605
0.12
56
38
0.038
bw
+
2.755
0.68
Coefficient
of
variation
(
SD/
mean)
a
N
=
number
of
subjects
b
Body
weight
(
bw)
in
kg
c
coefficient
of
correlation
d
Source:
Layton,
1993.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5A­
6
August
1997
Table
5A­
5.
Selected
Ventilation
Values
During
Different
Activity
Levels
Obtained
From
Various
Literature
Sources
Col.
1
2
3
4
5
6
Line
Subject
W
(
kg)
Resting
Light
Activity
Heavy
Work
Maximal
Work
During
Exercise
f
VT
V*
f
VT
V*
f
VT
V*
f
VT
V*

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Adult
Man
1.7
m
SA
2
30y;
170
cm
L
20­
33
y
Woman
30
y;
160
cm
L
20­
25
y;
165.8
cm
L
Pregnant
(
8th
mo)
68.5
70.4
54
60.3
12
12
15
12
15
16
750
500
500
340
400
650
7.4
6
7.5
4.5
6
10
17
16
19
20
1670
1250
860
940
29
20
16
19
21
30
2030
880
43
25
40
46
3050
2100
111
90
9
10
11
12
Adolescent
male,
14­
16
y
male,
14­
15
y
female,
14­
16
y
female,
14­
15
y;
164.9
cm
L
59.4
56
16
15
330
300
5.2
4.5
53
52
2520
1870
113
88
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Children
10
y;
140
cm
L
males,
10­
11
y
males,
10­
11
y;
140.6
cm
L
females,
4­
6
y
females,
4­
6
y;
111.6
cm
L
Infant,
1
y
Newborn
20
hrs­
13
wk
9.6
hrs
6.6
days
36.5
32.5
20.8
18.4
2.5
2.5­
5.3
3.6
3.7
16
30
34
25
29
300
48
15
21
21
4.8
1.4a
0.5
0.5
0.6
24
600
14
58
61
70
66
68b
1330
1050
600
520
51a,
b
71
61
40
34
3.5b
W
=
body
weights
referable
to
the
dimension
quoted
in
column
1;
f
=
frequency
(
breaths/
min);
VT
=
tidal
volume
(
ml);
V*
=
minute
volume
(
l/
min);
SA
=
surface
area;
cm
L
=

length/
height;
y
=
years
of
age;
wk
=
week.

Calculated
from
V*
=
f
x
VT.

a
Crying.

b
Source:
ICRP,
1981.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5A­
7
Table
5A­
6.
Estimated
Minute
Ventilation
Associated
with
Activity
Level
for
Average
Male
Adult
a
Level
of
work
L/
min
Representative
activities
Light
13
Level
walking
at
2
mph;
washing
clothes
Light
19
Level
walking
at
3
mph;
bowling;
scrubbing
floors
Light
25
Dancing;
pushing
wheelbarrow
with
15­
kg
load;
simple
construction;
stacking
firewood
Moderate
30
Easy
cycling;
pushing
wheelbarrow
with
75­
kg
load;
using
sledgehammer
Moderate
35
Climbing
stairs;
playing
tennis;
digging
with
spade
Moderate
40
Cycling
at
13
mph;
walking
on
snow;
digging
trenches
Heavy
55
Cross­
country
skiing;
rock
climbing;
stair
climbing
Heavy
63
with
load;
playing
squash
or
handball;
chopping
Very
heavy
72
with
axe
Very
heavy
85
Level
running
at
10
mph;
competitive
cycling
Severe
100+
Competitive
long
distance
running;
cross­
country
skiing
Average
adult
assumed
to
weigh
70
kg.
a
Source:
Adapted
from
U.
S.
EPA,
1985
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Page
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
5A­
8
August
1997
Table
5A­
7.
Minute
Ventilation
Ranges
by
Age,
Sex,
and
Activity
Level
Ventilation
ranges
(
liters/
minute)

Age
Sex
Resting
Light
Moderate
Heavy
(
years)
n
Range
Mean
n
Range
Mean
n
Range
Mean
n
Range
Mean
Infants
M/
F
316
0.25
­
2.09
0.84
­­­
­­­

2
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
­­­

M
­­­
­­­
­­­
­­­

3
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
­­­

M
­­­
­­­
­­­
­­­

4
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
2
32.0
­
32.5
32.3
M
­­­
­­­
­­­
4
39.3
­
43.3
41.2
5
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
3
31.0
­
35.0
32.8
M
­­­
­­­
­­­
3
30.9
­
42.6
37.5
6
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
2
35.9
­
38.9
37.4
M
8
5.0
­
7.0
6.5
16
5.0
­
32.0
13.9
4
28.0
­
43.0
33.3
3
35.5
­
43.5
40.3
7
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
3
48.2
­
51.4
49.6
M
­­­
­­­
­­­
2
44.1
­
55.8
50.0
8
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
4
51.2
­
67.6
57.6
M
­­­
­­­
­­­
3
59.3
­
62.2
60.7
9
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
27
55.8
­
63.4
50.9
M
­­­
­­­
­­­
7
59.5
­
75.2
65.7
10
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
21
46.2
­
71.1
60.4
M
10
5.2
­
8.3
7.1
20
5.2
­
35.0
17.2
9
41.0
­
68.0
53.4
6
63.9
­
74.6
70.5
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
7
49.7
­
80.9
63.5
M
­­­
20
­­­
20.3
20
­­­
33.1
9
47.6
­
77.5
65.5
12
F
54
4.1
­
16.1
15.4
­­­
4
19.6
­
46.3
26.5
31
65.5
­
79.9
71.8
M
56
7.2
­
16.3
15.4
­­­
6
18.5
­
46.3
34.1
9
58.1
­
84.7
67.7
13
F
5
7.2
­
15.4
9.9
­­­
5
18.5
­
46.3
30.3
7
67.6
­
102.6
87.7
M
16
3.1
­
15.4
8.9
30
3.1
­
24.9
16.4
29
14.4
­
48.4
32.8
38
27.8
­
105.0
57.9
14
F
53
3.1
­
15.6
14.9
­­­
3
21.6
­
37.1
28.1
5
80.7
­
100.7
88.9
M
77
3.1
­
27.8
14.2
­­­
24
24.7
­
55.0
39.7
16
42.2
­
121.0
86.9
15
F
1
­­­
6.2
­­­
1
­­­
26.8
6
68.4
­
97.1
87.1
M
8
3.1
­
26.8
11.1
­­­
7
27.8
­
46.3
39.3
6
48.4
­
140.3
110.5
16
F
50
­­­
15.2
­­­
­­­
­­­
8
73.6
­
119.1
93.9
M
50
­­­
15.6
­­­
­­­
3
79.6
­
132.2
102.5
17
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
2
91.9
­
95.3
93.6
M
12
5.8
­
9.0
7.3
­­­
12
40.0
­
63.0
48.6
3
89.4
­
139.3
107.7
18
F
­­­
­­­
­­­
­­­

M
­­­
­­­
­­­
9
99.7
­
143.0
120.9
Adults
F
595
4.2
­
11.66
5.7
786
4.2
­
29.4
8.1
106
20.7
­
34.2
26.5
211
23.4
­
114.8
47.9
Adults
M
454
2.3
­
18.8
12.2
102
2.3
­
27.6
13.8
102
14.4
­
78.0
40.9
267
34.6
­
183.4
80.0
n
=
number
of
observations
Note:
Values
in
liters/
minute
can
be
converted
to
units
of
m
/
hour
by
multiplying
by
the
conversion
factor,
60
minutes/
hour
3
1000
liters/
m
Source:
Adapted
from
U.
S.
EPA,
1985.
Volume
I
­
General
Factors
Appendix
5A
Exposure
Factors
Handbook
Page
August
1997
5A­
9
