Receiving
Water
Impacts
of
Sediment
Literature
Review
and
Summary
Prepared
by
Tetra
Tech,
Inc.
for
USEPA,
Office
of
Science
and
Technology
March
31,
2004
Receiving
Water
Impacts
of
Sediment
A
large
body
of
scientific
literature
addresses
the
question
of
how
the
health
of
aquatic
resources
is
impacted
by
excess
sediment
loading
in
waterbodies.
At
least
partly
on
the
basis
of
the
research
findings,
states
across
the
country
have
already
set
sediment
targets
for
receiving
waters
to
protect
aquatic
resources,
and
are
continually
developing
and
refining
targets
for
geographically
specific
watersheds.

Demarcation
by
waterbody
type
provides
context
and
is
an
important
theme
in
the
literature
for
purposes
of
setting
sediment
targets.
For
example,
conditions
in
the
deltaic
lower
Mississippi
are
different
from
those
in
montane
streams
in
Idaho.
Differences
exist
not
only
in
the
aquatic
species,

but
also
in
sediment
behavior
within
the
waterbody
and
in
threshold
levels
of
impacts.
The
biota
or
aquatic
species
that
are
the
focus
of
the
literature
include
aquatic
vegetation,
macroinvertebrates,

eggs,
fry,
juvenile
and
adult
fish,
shellfish,
and
corals.
Identified
waterbody
types
in
the
literature
include:

°
lakes,
reservoirs,
ponds,
and
impoundments
°
rivers
and
streams
°
wetlands
°
oceans,
estuaries,
and
other
coastal
water
ecosystems,
including
coral
reefs
Construction
Industry
Impacts
on
Sediment
Loads
Storm
water
discharges
generated
during
construction
activities
cause
a
wide
variety
of
physical,

chemical,
and
biological
water
quality
impacts.
The
interconnected
process
of
erosion,
sediment
transport,
and
delivery
is
the
primary
pathway
for
introducing
pollutants
such
as
excess
sedimentation,
total
suspended
solids,
nutrients,
metals,
and
organic
compounds
to
aquatic
systems
(
Novotny
and
Chesters
1989)
in
USEPA
(
1999).
USDA
(
1989)
estimated
that
80
percent
of
phosphorus
and
73
percent
of
the
Kjeldahl
nitrogen
are
directly
associated
with
eroded
sediment
(
cited
in
Fennessey
and
Jarrett
(
1994),
in
USEPA
1999).
The
2000
National
Water
Quality
Inventory
3
(
USEPA)
states
that
siltation
is
one
of
the
top
causes
of
impairment
of
waters
across
the
United
States.
The
report
also
states
that
pollution
from
urban
and
agricultural
land
transported
by
precipitation
and
runoff,
and
which
includes
pollutants
from
construction
and
land
development
activities,
is
the
leading
source
of
impairment.

Direct
and
Indirect
Impacts
The
impacts
of
excess
sediment
in
the
water
include
direct
physical
effects
such
as
reducing
visibility
and
light
in
the
water
column,
physical
abrasion
of
plant
surfaces,
clogging
of
gill
openings,
and
entombing
of
eggs
and
fry
in
redds.
Impacts
may
also
be
indirect,
as
in
changes
to
the
chemical
composition
of
the
water,
light
penetration
or
turbidity,
and/
or
temperature
profile,
which
in
turn
affect
primary
productivity
with
repercussions
in
terms
of
fish
behavior
and
overall
community
profiles
and
trophic
structure.
Thus
aquatic
resources
may
be
directly
affected
in
terms
of
aesthetics,

physiology,
and
mortality,
or
indirectly
affected
via
changes
in
the
habitat
structure
of
the
waterbody.

Suspended
vs.
Deposited
Sediment
In
this
section
consideration
is
given
to
the
impacts
of
suspended
sediment.
Bedded
sediments,

though
they
directly
affect
the
survival
of
fish
eggs
and
fry
and
other
organisms,
do
so
because
they
alter
the
habitat
structure
and
are
dealt
with
in
Section
8.2.3
under
Physical
Impacts
of
Construction
and
Land
Development
Activities.

Literature
This
literature
review
focuses
on
study
methodologies
that
describe
quantitative
effects
of
sediment
imbalance
in
aquatic
systems
in
a
basic
dose­
response
relationship
and
where
aquatic
organisms
are
exposed
to
suspended
and/
or
bedded
sediments.
Additionally,
although
sediment
entering
a
particular
aquatic
system
may
be
contaminated
and
generate
additional
effects
through
toxic/
non­
toxic
pollutants
that
are
associated
with
it,
this
review
focuses
on
the
impacts
from
uncontaminated
4
sediments.

Cold­
water
salmonid
fish,
predominantly
in
a
stream
setting,
dominate
the
literature
on
the
sediment
dose­
response
relationship.
The
literature
is
neither
as
extensive
nor
as
rich
on
estuaries,
lakes,
and
coastal
ecosystems
or
on
invertebrates,
fish
other
than
salmonids,
and
aquatic
plants.

The
aquatic
variables
impacted
are
presented
below.
The
review
considers
literature
on
several
types
of
aquatic
resource:
aquatic
vegetation
and
primary
production,
invertebrates,
juvenile
fish,
fry,
and
eggs,
and
adult
fish.
These
aquatic
biota
are
considered
within
their
geographical
setting
and
waterbody
type:
rivers/
streams,
ponds/
lakes,
estuaries/
coastal
environments.
Topics
that
are
covered
more
extensively
in
the
literature
are
the
impacts
of
suspended
sediment
on
adult
fish
and
impacts
of
deposited
or
substrate
sediment
on
juvenile
fish,
fry,
and
eggs.

Measures
of
suspended
sediment
In
this
section,
the
effects
of
excessive
suspended
sediment
on
aquatic
resources
are
considered.

Measures
of
suspended
sediment
include
turbidity
and
total
suspended
solids.
With
respect
to
reviewing
these
dose­
response
studies
authors
typically
consider
how
either
turbidity
or
TSS
affects
biota.
However,
the
relationship
between
the
two
measures
is
often
unclear
and
not
explicitly
defined.
Turbidity
is
a
measure
of
light
dispersion
whereas
TSS
measures
the
mass
of
particles
in
the
water
column.
Larger
particles
contribute
mass
to
a
TSS
measurement,
but
do
not
scatter
light
as
much
as
a
similar
weight
of
smaller
particles.
Usually
when
sediment
particles
are
smaller,
turbidity
levels
are
higher.

Studies
involving
an
analysis
of
the
relationship
between
the
two
measures
of
suspended
sediment
include
Packman,
et
al.
(
1999)
who
showed
that
TSS
and
turbidity
have
a
strong
positive
relationship
in
nine
urban/
suburban
Puget
lowland
streams.
New
Mexico
TMDLs
(
NMED,
2002)
converted
a
turbidity
standard
to
TSS
by
calibrating
with
local
data,
so
that
the
TSS
values
in
units
of
mg/
L
could
be
converted
to
sediment
loads
in
lbs/
day.
Keyes
and
Radcliff
(
2002)
calibrated
turbidity
units
(
NTU)

to
approximate
TSS
measures
using
40
mg/
L
kaolin
clay
set
to
a
standard
of
40
NTU.
However,
in
5
natural
streams
the
composition
of
suspended
particles
is
not
uniformly
like
that
of
kaolin
clay.

The
impact
of
suspended
sediment
depends
on
the
type
of
particle
sizes
to
some
extent,
and
therefore
TSS
and
turbidity
measures
should
be
considered
together
where
the
information
is
available.
For
example,
Servizi
and
Martens
(
1992)
reported
that
salmonids
were
relatively
tolerant
of
elevated
TSS
levels
when
the
particle
sizes
were
larger.
When
the
particles
are
smaller,
turbidity
is
higher,
which
appears
to
make
conditions
more
difficult
for
the
salmonids.

Sediment
Deposition
Rates
The
effects
of
sediment
deposition
from
construction
activities
are
known
to
affect
streams
far
downstream
of
construction
sites.
For
example,
Fox
(
1974),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
found
that
streams
between
4.8
and
5.6
miles
downstream
of
construction
sites
in
the
Patuxent
River
watershed
were
impacted
by
sediment
inputs.

Erosion
from
construction
sites
can
also
generate
the
transport
of
pollutants
associated
with
onsite
wastes.
The
Storm
Water
Quality
Task
Force
(
1993),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
states
that
rain
splash,
rills,

and
sheetwash
encourage
the
detachment
and
transport
of
pollutants
(
including
both
sediments
and
pollutants
associated
with
sediments)
to
waterbodies.
Erosion
from
construction
sites
and
runoff
in
developed
areas
can
elevate
pollutant
loads
well
above
those
in
undisturbed
watersheds.
Novotny
and
Olem
(
1994),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
state
that
erosion
rates
from
construction
sites
are
much
greater
than
from
any
other
land
use.
The
results
from
field
studies
and
erosion
models
conducted
by
USDA
(
1970),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
found
that
erosion
rates
from
construction
sites
are
usually
an
order
or
magnitude
higher
than
row
crops
and
several
orders
of
magnitude
higher
than
rates
from
wellvegetated
areas
such
as
forests
or
pastures.
A
review
of
the
efficiency
of
sediment
basins
conducted
by
Brown
(
1997),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
found
that
inflows
from
12
construction
sites
had
a
mean
TSS
concentration
of
about
4,500
mg/
L.
Kuo
(
1976),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
found
that
suspended
sediment
concentrations
from
housing
construction
sites
in
Virginia
were
measured
at
500­
3,000
mg/
L,
or
about
40
times
larger
than
the
concentrations
in
runoff
from
already­
developed
urban
areas.
In
Wisconsin,
Daniel
et
al.
(
1979)
(
in
USEPA
1999)
monitored
storm
water
runoff
from
three
residential
6
construction
sites
and
found
that
annual
sediment
yields
were
more
than
19
times
the
yields
from
agricultural
areas.
Daniel
et
al.
identified
total
storm
water
runoff
followed
by
peak
storm
water
runoff
as
the
most
influential
factors
controlling
the
sediment
loadings
from
residential
construction
sites,
and
also
found
that
suspended
sediment
concentrations
were
15,000­
20,000
mg/
L
in
moderate
storm
events
and
up
to
60,000mg/
L
in
larger
events.
Lastly,
Wolman
and
Schick
(
1967),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
studied
impacts
of
development
on
fluvial
systems
in
Maryland,
and
found
that
sediment
yields
in
areas
undergoing
construction
were
1.5
to
as
much
as
75
times
greater
than
detected
in
natural
or
agricultural
catchments.
Lastly,
Yorke
and
Herb
(
1978),
in
a
long
term
study
of
subbasins
in
Maryland
portions
of
the
Anacostia
River,
found
that
average
annual
suspended
sediment
yields
for
construction
sites
ranged
from
7
to
100
tons
per
acre.

The
effects
of
road
construction
on
erosion
rates
and
sediment
yields
were
also
examined.
In
West
Virginia,
a
road
construction
project
studied
by
Downs
and
Appel
(
1986)
disturbed
only
4.2
percent
of
a
4.72
square
mile
basin,
but
it
resulted
in
a
three
fold
increase
in
suspended
sediment
yields.

During
the
largest
storm
event,
it
was
estimated
that
80
percent
of
the
sediment
in
the
stream
was
attributed
to
the
construction
site.
Hainly
(
1980)
evaluated
the
effect
of
290
acres
of
highway
construction
on
watersheds
which
ranged
in
size
from
5
to
38
square
miles.
He
found
that
even
in
the
smallest
watershed,
the
estimated
sediment
yield
from
the
construction
area
was
37
tons
per
acre
during
a
two­
year
period.
In
Hawaii,
Hill
(
1996)
found
that
highway
construction
increased
suspended
sediment
loads
by
56
to
76
percent
in
basins
of
1
to
4
square
miles.
The
National
Association
of
Counties
Research
Foundation
(
1970)
determined
that
sediment
yields
from
construction
sites
could
be
as
much
as
500
times
the
levels
in
rural
areas.

Small
vs.
Large
Construction
Site
Impacts
Studies
have
indicated
that
the
water
quality
impact
from
small
construction
sites
may
be
the
same
or
greater
than
large
construction
sites
on
a
per
acre
basis.
The
concentration
of
pollutants
in
runoff
from
small
sites
is
similar
to
that
from
large
sites.
In
urban
areas
the
proportion
of
sediment
that
makes
it
to
surface
waters
may
be
the
same
because
the
runoff
is
delivered
directly
to
storm
drain
networks,
with
no
opportunity
for
pollutants
to
be
filtered
out
(
USEPA,
1999).
MacDonald
(
1997),
7
in
USEPA
(
1999),
states
that
storm
water
regulations
are
more
likely
to
require
controls
for
large
sites
than
smaller
sites.
The
smaller
sites
that
lack
sediment
and
erosion
controls
would
then
contribute
a
disproportionate
amount
of
total
sediment
from
construction
activities.
Brown
and
Caraco
(
1997),
in
USEPA
(
1999)
also
state
that
smaller
construction
sites
are
less
likely
to
have
an
effective
plan
for
controlling
erosion,
are
less
likely
to
implement
and
maintain
their
plans,
and
are
less
likely
to
be
inspected.

To
test
the
theory
that
small
sites
have
sediment
loads
on
a
per
acre
basis
similar
to
large
sites,
the
EPA
gave
a
grant
to
Dane
County,
Wisconsin
Land
Conservation
Department,
in
cooperation
with
USGS,
to
evaluate
sediment
runoff.
In
this
study
by
Owens
et
al
(
1999),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
a
0.34
acre
residential
development
and
a
1.72
acre
commercial
office
development
were
evaluated.
At
the
residential
site,
total
solids
concentrations
were
642
mg/
L,
2,788
mg/
L,
and
132mg/
L
for
preconstruction,
active
construction,
and
post­
construction,
respectively.
This
equaled
7.4
lbs
preconstruction,
35
lbs
during
construction,
and
0.6
lbs
post­
construction
on
a
pollutant
load
basis
At
the
commercial
site,
Owens
et
al
found
that
total
solids
during
preconstruction
were
138
mg/
L
and
200mg/
L
during
post­
construction,
but
was
15,000
mg/
l
during
the
active
construction
period.
This
equaled
0.3
lbs
preconstruction,
490
lbs
during
construction,
and
13.4
lbs
after
construction
on
a
pollutant
load
basis.
The
total
solids
from
the
commercial
site
were
similar
to
those
in
a
study
by
Downs
and
Appel
(
1986),
who
evaluated
the
effects
of
highway
construction
in
West
Virginia.
They
found
that
a
small
storm
event
yielded
a
sediment
concentration
of
7,520
mg/
L.

Several
studies
have
also
evaluated
the
total
amount
of
disturbed
land
for
small
and
large
construction
sites.
Brown
and
Caraco
surveyed
219
jurisdictions
to
assess
sediment
and
erosion
control
programs.

They
found
that
of
the
70
respondents,
in
27
cases
more
than
three­
fourths
of
the
permits
were
for
sites
less
than
5
acres,
and
in
another
18
cases,
more
than
half
of
the
permits
were
for
sites
less
than
5
acres.
MacDonald
(
1997),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
evaluated
data
on
the
3,831
construction
site
permits
for
North
Carolina
from
1994
through
1996.
He
found
that
nearly
61
percent
of
the
sites
1.0
acre
or
larger
were
between
1.0
and
4.9
acres
in
size.
EPA
estimates
that
construction
sites
disturbing
more
than
5
acres
is
2.1
million
acres
(
78.1
percent
of
total),
while
the
sites
disturbing
between
1
and
5
acres
totaled
0.5
million
acres
(
19.4
percent).
Given
their
high
erosion
rates,
small
construction
8
sites
can
contribute
significantly
to
water
quality
impairment,
particularly
in
small
watersheds.

Paterson
(
1994),
in
USEPA
(
1999),
summarized
that,
given
the
critical
importance
of
field
implementation
of
erosion
and
sediment
control
programs,
much
more
focus
should
be
given
to
plan
implementation.

I.
Effects
of
Sediment
on
Primary
Production
Aquatic
plants
generate
oxygen
in
the
water
through
the
process
of
photosynthesis,
but
they
provide
more
benefits
than
just
photosynthesis.
They
comprise
a
large
part
of
the
biomass
available
to
nourish
grazer
organisms
in
the
water,
which
then
serve
as
prey
for
other
organisms.
Macrophyte
plants
also
provide
cover
and
niches
for
fauna,
attenuate
flow
velocity,
and
generally
improve
physical
habitat
quality.
Excessive
sediments
in
aquatic
system
contribute
to
turbidity
which
alters
the
light
regime
in
the
water
column.
This
suppresses
the
photosynthesis
process,
which
directly
impacts
primary
production,
submerged
aquatic
vegetation,
and
the
zooxanthellae
in
corals.
Other
effects
include
coating
and
physical
abrasion
of
plants.

Best
et
al
(
2001)
described
the
effect
of
light
changes
on
aquatic
vegetation.
Batiuk
et
al.
(
1992),

Dennison
et
al
(
1993),
and
USEPA
(
2000)
documented
declines
of
submerged
aquatic
vegetation
(
SAV)
in
the
Chesapeake
Bay
from
suspended
sediment.
USEPA
derived
Chesapeake
Bay
water
clarity
criteria
based
on
the
light
requirements
for
SAV
growth
and
survival.
The
criteria
take
total
suspended
solids,
chlorophyll
a,
epiphytic
growth,
and
salinity
profiles
into
account.

Van
Nieuwenhuyse
and
LaPerrier
(
1986)
found
that
primary
production
was
reduced
by
50
percent
of
background
levels
when
there
was
turbidity
of
170
NTU
and
TSS
201
mg/
L.
Hart
and
Fuller
(
1972)
found
that
in
the
Patuxent
River
Maryland,
high
turbidity
levels
limited
the
development
of
macrophytes.
Reed
(
1983)
found
that
macrophytes
colonized
deeper
parts
of
the
water
column
in
a
North
Carolina
pond
when
turbidity
was
decreased.
Buck
(
1956)
in
Vohs
et
al.
(
1993)
found
that
in
clear
ponds
in
Oklahoma
primary
production
was
12.8
times
higher
than
in
ponds
with
TSS
of
100
mg/
L.
USDA
National
Sedimentation
Laboratory,
Knight
et
al.
(
1998)
found
that
suspended
sediment
concentrations
as
low
as
100
mg/
L
reduced
primary
production.
Westlake
(
1975)
found
9
that
the
gradual
reduction
of
light
by
turbidity
raises
the
compensation
point
(
the
depth
at
which
photosynthesis
equals
respiration)
below
which
plants
cannot
grow.

While
turbidity
and
suspended
sediment
blocks
the
penetration
of
light
into
a
water
body
and
therefore
affects
photosynthesis,
this
effect
is
also
influenced
by
factors
such
as
temperature,
current
velocities
and
distribution,
flow
regimes,
and
taxon­
specific
response
by
the
biota.
U.
S
EPA
(
1986),

Lloyd
et
al.
(
1987),
Kiffney
and
Bull
(
2000),
and
Rosemond
et
al.
(
2000)
found
generally
that
increased
suspended
sediment
reduces
primary
production,
which
limits
the
abundance
of
primary
feeders
that
form
the
basis
of
the
food
chain
for
fish.
Lloyd
(
1987)
found
that
in
Alaska,
turbidities
of
25
NTU
or
more
could
cause
light
extinction
at
shallower
depths
in
the
water
than
under
normal
conditions.
This
type
of
impact
is
typically
associated
with
a
decrease
in
plant
production.
Lewis
(
1973)
found
that
higher
levels
of
TSS
affect
primary
production
not
only
by
reducing
light
penetration
but
also
through
abrasion.
Severe
abrasive
damage
was
observed
after
3
weeks
of
exposure
to
100
mg/
L
of
coal
dust
on
the
leaves
of
the
aquatic
moss
Eurhynchium
riparioides.

Decreased
light
penetration
also
often
causes
aquatic
macrophytes
to
be
replaced
with
algal
communities,
which
in
turn
alters
invertebrate
and
fish
communities
(
USEPA,
2003).
Kiffney
and
Bull
(
2000)
found
that
as
suspended
sediment
accumulates
in
algal
mats,
the
abundance
of
benthic
herbivores
are
reduced.
Davies­
Colley
et
al.
(
1992)
found
that
restriction
in
light
penetration
into
water
is
an
important
mechanism
by
which
fine
inorganic
solids
damage
streams.

Dissolved
Oxygen
Primary
production
is
also
affected
by
changes
in
the
dissolved
oxygen
(
DO)
composition
in
the
water.
There
are
several
mechanisms
through
which
increased
sediment
turbidity
can
reduce
dissolved
oxygen
in
the
water.
Lower
DO
may
have
direct
physiological
effects
on
organisms
at
many
trophic
levels
in
the
waterbody.
Organic
particles
bound
to
suspended
solids
remove
oxygen
from
the
water
column
as
they
decompose.
Fish
may
increase
their
activity
levels
in
response
to
turbidity,
thereby
increasing
their
respiration
rates
and
removal
of
oxygen
from
the
water
column.

Du
Preez
et
al.
(
1996)
found
that
fish
assemblages
increase
O
2
consumption
in
the
presence
of
10
10,0000
mg/
L
of
suspended
silt.
Over
time
the
fish
became
acclimated
to
the
turbid
conditions
and
slowly
reduced
their
respiration
rate,
allowing
ambient
DO
concentrations
to
return
to
normal.
Reed
et
al.
(
1983)
found
that
increased
turbidity
traps
heat
in
ponds
in
North
Carolina.
With
increased
heat,
oxidation
rates
in
the
ponds
may
increase
and
lower
the
DO
equilibrium
concentration
in
the
water.

NAS
and
NAE
(
1973)
found
that
suspended
materials
decrease
the
light
penetration
through
the
water
column,
but
they
increase
the
absorption
of
solar
energy
near
the
surface.
The
heated
upper
layers
tend
to
stratify
the
water
column.
With
increased
stratification,
there
is
reduced
dispersion
of
DO
and
nutrients
to
the
lower
depths
of
the
waterbody.

II.
Effects
of
Sediment
on
Macroinvertebrates
In
general,
information
is
not
as
abundant
on
the
effects
of
suspended
sediment
on
macroinvertebrates
as
on
fish.

Drift
in
normal
aquatic
ecology
is
a
natural,
"
continuous
redistribution
mechanism."
In
the
course
of
a
normal
life
cycle,
benthic
invertebrates
periodically
release
from
bottom
substrates
and
become
mobilized
in
downstream
flow.
When
there
is
excess
sediment
it
affects
the
macroinvertebrate
population
by
causing
significant
increases
in
drift
through
scour
or
increased
turbidity.

Direct
Impacts
Culp
et
al.
(
1986)
experimentally
added
sand
particles
to
a
stream
segment,
increasing
that
segment's
bed
load.
More
than
50%
of
benthic
animals
in
the
stream
segment
were
scoured
from
the
bed.

Herbert
and
Merkens
(
1961)
found
that
populations
of
macroinvertebrates
decreased
when
suspended
solid
concentrations
rose
from
40
to
120
mg/
L.
Drift
rate
increased
90
percent
and
reductions
in
macroinvertebrates
occurred
even
in
the
absence
of
visible
accumulation
of
sediment
in
the
substrate.

Griffiths
and
Walton
(
1978)
in
USEPA(
2003),
found
that
the
upper
severity
of
ill
effect
tolerance
level
for
suspended
sediment
for
bottom
invertebrates
could
be
as
low
as
10­
15
mg/
L.
11
Gammon
(
1970)
found
declines
in
populations
of
macroinvertebrates
when
more
than
80mg/
L
inert
solids
were
added
to
the
normal
suspended
solids
concentrations.
A
decline
in
abundance
was
attributed
to
the
increased
drift
out
of
riffles.
The
drift
rate
was
directly
proportional
to
increases
in
suspended
sediment
concentration
up
to
160
mg/
L.

Contributors
to
the
literature
are
still
debating
the
exact
effects
of
suspended
sediment
on
macroinvertebrates,
however.
Waters
(
1995)
found
"
on
the
basis
of
current
knowledge,
the
direct
effect
of
suspended
sediment
upon
benthic
invertebrates
does
not
appear
to
be
a
significant
influence
upon
stream
invertebrate
communities."
Chapman
and
Mcleod
(
1987)
found
that
sufficient
data
are
not
available
to
establish
reliable
thresholds
of
sediment
concentration
that
cause
damage
to
aquatic
invertebrates.
Fairchild
et
al
(
1987)
pulsed
discharges
of
large
concentrations
of
suspended
sediment
to
a
stream
for
two
hours
each
week
for
six
weeks.
The
additional
sediment
caused
no
alteration
in
abundance
or
diversity
of
benthos
or
insect
emergence.

NAHB
(
2000)
summarized
some
points
from
the
literature
by
pointing
out
that
collisions
with
moving
bed
load
material
can
physically
scour
benthic
organisms
from
the
stream
bottom
in
rapidly
moving
streams,
and
high
concentrations
of
suspended
sediment
(
e.
g.,
120
mg/
L)
may
cause
significant
displacement
of
invertebrates
by
drift,
but
short­
term
pulses
of
higher
concentrations
may
not
disturb
the
invertebrate
community.
Rosenberg
and
Wiens
(
1978)
found
that
benthic
invertebrates
exposed
to
8
mg/
L
of
suspended
sediment
for
five
hours
exhibited
increased
rates
of
drift.
Invertebrates
most
sensitive
to
sediment,
i.
e,
those
that
drifted
almost
immediately
after
sediment
addition,
included
important
salmonid
prey,
indicating
the
repercussions
of
sediments
effects
on
invertebrates
all
the
way
up
the
aquatic
food
chain.
Shaw
and
Richardson
(
2001)
found
that
macroinvertebrate
drift
tends
to
increase
with
longer
repeated
pulses
of
sediment
influx.
Runde
and
Hellenthal
(
2000)
found
that
macroinvertebrate
drift
tends
to
increase
with
smaller
particle
sizes.
McCabe
and
O'Brien
(
1983)

found
that
the
filter
feeding
zooplankton
Daphnia
pulex
displayed
a
reduced
capacity
to
assimilate
food
when
exposed
to
24
mg/
L
of
suspended
sediment
for
only
15
minutes.
12
Indirect
Impacts
Indirect
impacts
of
suspended
sediment
on
aquatic
insect
populations
are
documented
in
the
literature
but
have
not
been
widely
studied.
Wagner
(
1959)
found
that
suspended
solids
eliminated
food
and
cover
and
therefore
insects,
as
a
consequence,
were
eliminated
in
the
Wynooche
River
in
western
Washington.
Arruda
et
al.
(
1983)
considered
the
effects
of
suspended
sediment
on
zooplankton
in
reservoirs
and
found
that
concentrations
of
50­
100
mg/
L
reduced
daphnia
grazing
on
algae
to
the
point
of
daphnia
starvation.
Increased
sediment
concentrations,
they
concluded,
(
up
to
2,451
mg/
L)

can
reduce
grazing
of
daphnia
on
algae
by
95%.
Wolman
and
Schick
(
1967),
in
USEPA
(
1999),

found
that
benthic
organisms
in
streambeds
can
be
smothered
by
sediment
deposits,
consequently
causing
changes
in
aquatic
flora
and
fauna,
such
as
fish
species
composition.

Waters
(
1995)
found
that
there
are
three
major
relationships
between
benthic
invertebrate
communities
and
sediment
deposition
in
streams,
i.
e.,
there
is
a
correlation
between
their
abundance
and
1)
substrate
particle
size,
2)
embeddedness
of
substrate
and
loss
of
interstitial
space
and
3)

change
in
species
composition.
Cordone
and
Kelly
(
1961),
Peddicord
(
1980),
Wilbur
and
Clarke
(
2001),
and
Zweig
and
Rabeni
(
2001)
found
a
high
correlation
between
deposited
sediments
and
the
effects
on
five
biomonitoring
metrics
in
four
Missouri
streams
that
the
authors
examined
for
benthic
fauna
tolerance
levels
to
sediment.

Aldridge
et
al.
(
1987)
found
that
increased
levels
of
suspended
sediment
were
shown
to
impair
ingestion
rates
of
freshwater
mussels
in
laboratory
studies.
Tester
and
Turner
(
1988)
and
Sherk
et
al.
(
1976)
found
that
copepods
reduced
feeding
activity
as
a
response
to
increased
levels
of
suspended
sediments.
Herbert
and
Merkens
(
1961)
found
that
increases
in
suspended
sediment
(
e.
g.,
to
120
mg/
L)
can
result
in
increased
drift,
significantly
altering
the
distribution
of
benthic
invertebrates.

Erman
and
Erman
(
1984)
found
that
as
substrate
embeddedness
increases
and
the
substrate
particle
size
distribution
reflects
greater
deposited
sediments,
it
affects
the
structure
and
function
of
benthic
macrofaunal
communities.
13
III.
Effects
of
Sediment
on
Fish
This
section
is
organized
along
three
main
categories
of
effects
on
fish:

°
Direct
physiological
effect,
e.
g.,
asphyxiation
and
suffocation,
gill
clogging
°
Behavioral
stresses
and
effects
on
population
survival
due
to
increased
turbidity,
lower
light
levels,
and
reduced
water
clarity
°
Substrate
and
deposited
sediment
effects
Sediment
Dose
and
Exposure
The
type
of
effect
that
excess
sediment
exerts
on
the
fish
is
loosely
correlated
with
the
sediment
dose:

high
concentrations
exact
direct
acute
physiological
and
mortality
effects
on
fish
while
lower
concentrations
can
elicit
behavioral
responses,
and,
if
exposure
is
persistent
or
frequent,
stunted
growth
and
reproduction.
Newcombe
and
MacDonald
(
1991)
established
that
it
is
not
only
the
sediment
concentration,
but
also
the
duration
of
exposure
that
is
critical.
Shaw
and
Richardson
(
2001)
found
that
the
frequency
of
exposure
is
important
to
consider
as
well
as
concentration
(
measures
of
concentration
over
time).

Direct
Physiological
Effect
There
is
a
body
of
literature
that
documents
the
process
of
direct
physiological
damage
to
fish,

including
Wallen
(
1951),
Alabaster
(
1972),
Ritchies
(
1972),
Stroud
(
1967),
and
Trautman
(
1981),

that
documents
the
clogging
of
fish
gills
by
sediment
particles.
USEPA
(
2003)
stated
that
stress
hormones
are
released
as
a
response
to
gill
function,
and
that
gill
clogging
causes
asphyxiation
and
traumatization
of
gill
tissue.
NAHB
(
2000)
surveyed
several
studies
that
describe
salmonid
fish
survival
despite
exposure
to
suspended
sediment
in
various
concentrations
over
various
durations.

Their
point
is
to
expose
the
large
variability
in
data
published
on
both
the
survival
period
of
fish
and
the
extent
of
damage
to
fish
gills
by
suspended
sediment.
For
example,
they
described
the
contrast
between
Herbert
and
Merkens
(
1961)
study
of
increased
fin
rot
and
observed
thickened
gill
14
epithelium
in
rainbow
trout
in
TSS
of
270mg/
L
and
Redding
et
al.
(
1987),
who
found
that
salmon
exposed
to
2000
mg/
L
of
suspended
solids
for
seven
days
did
not
show
degradation
of
the
gills.

NAHB
(
2000)
also
reports
few
corroborated
estimates
of
threshold
lethal
levels
of
suspended
sediment
in
the
literature,
noting
Mccleay
at
al.
(
1987)
in
contrast
to
Lloyd
(
1987).
They
also
point
out
that
mortality
as
a
direct
outcome
of
the
physiological
process
of
gill
damage
through
suspended
sediment
is
not
conclusive
in
the
literature,
citing
Stroud
(
1967),
and
that
gill
damage
is
only
apparent
after
a
long
period
of
exposure
to
high
levels
of
TSS
in
Wallen
(
1951).
Farnworth
et
al,
(
1971)
found
that
experimental
fish
survived
for
a
week
or
longer
in
100,000
NTU
turbidity
conditions
Additionally,
NAHB
(
2000)
mentions
that
climate
variability
influences
the
effects
of
TSS
in
fish,

citing
Noggle
(
1978).
They
note
that
the
summer
threshold
for
salmon
survival
in
waters
with
elevated
suspended
solids
is
much
lower
than
the
autumn
threshold.
They
concur
with
the
understanding
of
duration
of
exposure
as
a
key
factor
of
consideration
along
with
concentration
of
suspended
solids
in
determining
fish
effects.

Waters
(
1995),
Everest
et
al.
(
1987),
Newport
and
Mayer
(
1974),
Wallen
(
1951),
and
Lake
and
Hinch
(
1999)
all
found
that
direct
acute
effects
of
suspended
sediments
on
adult
fish
may
not
be
observed
until
concentrations
reach
thousands
to
tens
of
thousands
of
mg/
L.

Anderson
et
al.
(
1996)
and
Newcombe
and
MacDonald
(
1991)
found
greater
sensitivity
in
younger
fish,
particularly
sac
fry,
with
increased
mortality
evident
at
concentrations
on
the
order
of
1000
mg/
L
or
less.
Slaney
et
al.
(
1977)
found
a
significant
relationship
between
suspended
sediment
duration
(
concentration
x
days)
and
percent
egg­
to­
fry
survival
of
rainbow
trout.
Survival
dropped
below
30%
at
about
1000
mg/
L­
day
and
approached
zero
at
about
2000
mg/
L­
day.
Reynolds
et
al.
(
1989)

found
that
Arctic
grayling
sac
fry
mortality
was
higher
than
a
control
group
that
was
not
exposed
to
the
suspended
sediment
duration.

Indirect
Effects:
Behavioral
Changes
and
Physiological
Stress
15
Elevated
suspended
sediment
may
not
always
be
directly
lethal
to
fish,
but
it
can
have
sublethal
impacts,
causing
adverse
behavior
in
fish
populations.
Deprivation,
displacement,
and
changes
in
trophic
dominance
can
limit
species'
normal
functions
of
feeding,
reproduction,
and
predation
to
the
point
at
which
healthy
populations
are
not
sustained.
Quote
Berg
&
Northcote
(
1985)
found
that
salmon
dominance
was
not
sustained,
territories
were
not
defended,
and
gill
flaring
occurred
more
frequently
at
elevated
sediment
concentrations.
These
authors
also
noted
that
normal
behaviors
were
restored
when
the
water
in
the
experiment
were
restored
to
normal
NTU
(
turbidity)
levels.

Effects
of
stress
on
morbidity,
growth,
and
mortality
patterns
in
fish
include
increased
blood
sugar
levels,
coughing,
altered
behavior,
emigration
and
avoidance,
reduced
feeding
rates,
reduced
reaction
distances,
reduced
growth,
reduced
survival,
reduced
primary
production,
reduced
density
and
reduced
feeding
rate,
reduced
food
assimilation,
and
reduced
reproductive
potential.
For
each
type
of
behavior
summarized
in
the
literature,
authors
indicate
the
range
of
turbidity
at
which
the
behavior
is
observed.
For
example,
altered
behavior,
emigration
and
avoidance,
and
reduced
feeding
rates
effects
are
noticed
in
a
range
between
3
and
30
NTUs.
At
even
lower
thresholds
in
turbidities
reduced
reaction
distances
are
observed.
A
decrease
in
growth
has
been
found
in
turbidities
of
22
NTUs
and
reduced
survival
rates
were
seen
in
turbidities
as
low
as
15
NTUs.

Servizi
and
Martens
(
1992)
found
that
blood
sugar
levels
(
a
secondary
indicator
of
stress)
increased
with
turbidity
at
all
levels
tested
(
juvenile
coho),
and
coughing
increased
significantly
between
3
and
30
NTUs.
Many
of
these
studies
were
conducted
in
laboratory
settings
and/
or
with
artificially
induced
turbidity
andmostly
represent
chronic,
continuous
exposure.

Lloyd
(
1987),
Reed
et
al.
(
1983),
McCleay
(
1987),
Scannell
(
1988),
and
Bisson
and
Bilby
(
1982)

found
that
salmon
avoid
turbid
waters
and
have
a
low
tolerance
for
them.
Servizi
and
Martens
(
1992)

and
Bjornn
and
Reisser
(
1991)
found
that
salmon
migration
is
delayed
or
impaired
in
turbid
waters
or
ceases
in
highly
turbid
waters.

Lloyd
(
1987)
and
Birtwell
et
al.
(
1984)
found
that
fish
are
displaced
as
result
of
turbidity.
Lloyd
et
al.
(
1987),
Alabaster
and
Lloyd
(
1982),
Berg
and
Northcote
(
1985),
and
Breitburg
(
1988)
found
that
16
there
is
a
reduction
in
predator
efficiency
due
to
turbidity
clouding
the
water
and
impairing
the
ability
of
sight­
dependent
hunting.

McCabe
and
O'Brien
(
1983)
found
that
filter­
feeding
by
fish
on
zooplankton
declined
in
a
turbid
pond.
NAHB
(
2000)
stated
that
the
evidence
about
turbidity's
effects
on
fish
may
be
uncertain.

Bisson
and
Bilby
(
1982),
showed
that
moderately
turbid
waters
are
tolerated
by
fish
in
their
study.

Gradall
and
Swenson
(
1982)
found
that
Creek
chubs
preferred
turbid
waters
over
moderately
turbid
waters.
Herbert
and
Richards
(
1963)
stated
that
reasonable
fish
populations
were
surviving
in
`
many
rivers'
containing
industrial
waste
solids.
Gregory
and
Levings
(
1988)
found
that
because
larger
fish
strike
at
prey
less
in
turbid
waters,
younger
salmon
were
actually
surviving
at
higher
rates
in
turbid
waters.
Sweka
and
Hartman
(
2001)
found
that
turbidity
decreases
predator
efficiency.

Lloyd
et
al.
(
1987)
found
that
turbidity
decreases
the
abundance
of
food
organisms
(
secondary
production),
thereby
affecting
the
abundance
of
fish.
Servizi
and
Martens
(
1992)
found
that
predatory
salmonids
avoid
highly
turbid
waters,
and
Vogel
and
Beauchamp
(
1999)
found
that
they
do
not
benefit
from
increased
macroinvertebrate
drift
associated
with
turbidity
because
sight
distances
and
capture
rates
are
reduced.
Sigler
et
al.
(
1984)
found
that
avoidance
behaviors
lead
to
decreased
growth
of
fish.
Bachmann
(
1958)
found
cessation
in
feeding
in
cutthroat
trout
exposed
to
a
suspended
sediment
concentration
of
35
mg/
L
over
a
2­
hour
period.
Gammon
(
1970)
found
that
loss
of
fisheries
can
occur
due
to
avoidance
or
failed
reproduction.

Tables,
Thresholds,
and
Targets
A
landmark
in
the
literature
on
the
effects
of
sediment
on
fish
is
the
tabular
summaries
of
modeled
effects
based
on
exposure,
duration,
and
type
of
fish
organism.
These
tables
summarize
the
available
data
on
the
effects
of
suspended
and
bedded
sediment
on
fish
and
invertebrates.
Newcombe
and
Jensen
(
1996)
presented
an
extensive
data
table
on
the
effects
of
suspended
and
bedded
sediments
on
fish
In
their
tables
they
categorized
effects
called
"
Severity
of
Ill
Effects"
as
behavioral,
sublethal,

para­
lethal,
and
lethal.
Based
on
the
concentration
of
sediment,
the
duration
that
the
fish
organism
could
tolerate
for
each
Effect
category
(
e.
g.,
behavioral
effect
or
sublethal
effect)
was
calculated
17
using
the
model
formulas.
The
type
of
fish
organism
is
another
dimension
in
the
tables.
For
example,

the
different
categories
of
organism
on
which
effects
are
noted
include:
salmonid
adults,
salmonid
juveniles,
eggs
and
larvae,
and
non­
salmonid
adults.

Wilbur
and
Clarke
(
2001)
modified
the
dose­
response
graphs
that
Newcome
and
Jensen
(
1996)

created
to
provide
an
easy
reference
for
estimating
biological
responses
of
estuarine
aquatic
organisms
to
suspended
sediment.
They
also
related
their
findings
to
sediment
conditions
associated
with
dredging
projects.
Other
groups
have
also
categorized
TSS
concentrations
based
on
their
effects
on
the
aquatic
environment,
primarily
fish.
The
European
Inland
Fisheries
Advisory
Commission
(
1964)
concluded
ranges
of
concentration
tolerance
as
follows:

°
If
conc
<
25
ppm
=
no
harmful
effect
on
fisheries
°
25
 
80
ppm
=
possible
to
maintain
good
to
moderate
fisheries
°
80­
400
ppm
=
unlikely
to
support
good
fisheries
°
400
ppm
=
poor
fisheries
The
classification
has
been
the
basis
of
other
authors
who
have
developed
recommendations
of
TSS
ranges
for
fish
protection.
Mills
et
al.
(
1985)
for
USEPA,
classified
impairment
of
aquatic
habitat
or
organism
by
TSS
in
terms
of
"
probable
impairment"
as
follows:

°
If
conc
<
10
mg/
L
=
improbable
impairment
°
If
conc
>
10mg/
L
and
<
100
mg/
L
=
potential
impairment
°
>
100
mg/
L
=
probable
impairment
Effects
of
Sediment
on
Fish
in
Lakes
Whittier
and
Hughes
(
1998)
described
a
northeastern
U.
S.
study
that
concluded
that
fish
that
could
tolerate
suspended
sediment
disturbances
in
streams
were
intolerant
or
only
moderately
tolerant
of
disturbances
in
lakes.
18
Effects
on
Sediment
on
Warmwater
Fish
Reports
of
direct
and
indirect
impacts
of
suspended
solids
in
warmwater
environments
are
less
readily
available
than
reports
from
salmon
research.
Waters
(
1995)
found
a
great
variation
in
tolerance
to
suspended
sediment
among
warmwater
fish.
Reed
et
al.
(
1983)
reviewed
early
papers
by
Wallen
(
1951)
and
concluded
that
lethal
suspended
solids
levels
ranged
from
38,250mg/
L
to
222,
000
mg/
L
for
fourteen
warmwater
species
of
fish.

Waters
(
1995)
also
found
that
fish
have
disappeared
over
a
long
time
from
warmwater
systems.

Trautman
(
1981)
found
that
siltation­
caused
gill­
asphyxiation
is
responsible
for
the
extinction
of
Harelip.
Heimstra
et
al.
(
1969)
in
Vohs
et
al.
(
1993)
found
that
bass
attacking
behavior,
efficiency,

and
social
order
were
disrupted
in
turbid
waters.
Edwards
et
al.
(
1983)
found
that
smallmouth
bass
fry
are
displaced
at
high
turbidity.
McMahon
et
al.
(
1984)
found
that
spotted
bass
in
the
southeastern
U.
S,
are
intolerant
of
turbid
water.
Gardner
(
1981)
found
lower
bluegill
feeding
rates
in
higher
turbid
waters.
Vinyard
and
O'Briend
(
1976)
found
that
reaction
distances
of
bluegill
were
shorter
at
higher
turbidity
(
though
there
is
overlap
in
the
reaction
distance
data
among
the
experimental
levels
of
turbidity).
Heimstra
et
al.
(
1969),
in
Vohs
et
al.
(
1993)
observed
greenfish
and
showed
that
their
activity
was
altered
and
their
social
order
was
noticeably
altered.
In
contrast
to
normal
conditions
where
an
individual
fish
made
all
the
attacks
in
a
group,
in
turbid
waters,
many
individuals
in
the
groups
made
random
attacks.

Decreased
DO
induced
by
excess
sediment
may
have
an
effect
on
warm
water
fish.
Doudoroff
and
Shumway
(
1970),
in
Reed
et
al.
(
1983)
did
a
review
of
literature
of
DO
requirements
of
warmwater
fish.
The
researchers
reported
that
largemouth
bass
avoided
waters
where
DO
was
only
3
to
4.5
mg/
L.
In
opposition,
a
lab
study
in
Horkel
and
Pearson
(
1976)
reported
that
oxygen
consumption
rates
of
green
sunfish
are
not
affected
by
turbid
suspensions
of
up
to
3500
FTU.
NAHB
(
2000)

equated
this
amount
of
turbidity
with
approximately
13,000
mg/
L,
roughly
equivalent
to
the
experimental
concentration
of
DuPreez
et
al.
(
1996).

Heimstra
et
al.
(
1969)
found
that
the
altered
behavior
in
both
largemouth
bass
and
green
sunfish
was
19
apparent
at
14­
16
JTU.
Walters
et
al.
(
2001)
found
that
the
Index
of
Biotic
Integrity
(
IBI)
values
in
Georgia
streams
were
found
to
be
consistently
lower
where
low­
flow
turbidity
values
exceeded
8
NTU.
Wallen
(
1951)
in
Reed
et
al.
(
1983)
showed
that
stressed
behavior
such
as
visible
confusion
and
agitated
behavior
was
observed
in
green
sunfish
in
turbid
conditions.
Hamilton
and
Nelson
(
1984)
found
that
certain
fish
accommodate
and
do
well
in
turbid
conditions
by
demonstrating
that
the
spawning,
feeding
and
growth
of
white
bass
is
not
acutely
affected
by
turbidity.
McMahon
et
al.

(
1984)
found
that
warmouth
do
fine
in
turbid
waters
up
to
100
NTUs
and
that
walleye
prefer
turbid
waters
to
clear,
well­
lit
zones
in
the
water
column.
Johnson
and
Hines
(
1999)
showed
in
a
lab
study
that
high
turbidity
(
250
mg/
L
of
suspended
sediments)
can
improve
the
survival
rate
of
young
razorback
suckers.

PHYSICAL
EFFECTS
Embedded
Sediment
Sediment
embeddedness
measures
the
degree
to
which
cobbles
and
large
gravels
are
buried
and
their
interstitial
spaces
filled
because
of
fine
sediment
deposition.
In
a
study
of
habitat
restoration
in
a
highly
sedimented
Idaho
stream,
Hillman
et
al.
(
1987)
found
that
interstitial
spaces
among
cobbles
may
be
essential
winter
habitat
for
juvenile
chinook
salmon.
When
large
cobble
was
added
to
an
otherwise
embedded
stream,
juvenile
populations
increased.
When
that
same
cobble
became
embedded,
the
population
decreased.

Embeddedness
blocks
passages
and
removes
small
cover
spaces
for
eggs,
fry,
and
juvenile
fish.

USEPA
(
2003)
summarized
that
sediment
deposition
has
caused
a
94%
reduction
in
numbers
and
standing
crop
biomass
in
large
game
fish
due
to
increased
vulnerability
of
their
eggs
to
predation
in
gravel
and
small
rubble,
reductions
in
oxygen
supply
to
eggs,
and
increased
embryo
mortality.

Weaver
and
Fraley
(
1993)
(
in
USEPA
2003)
reported
that
emergence
success
of
cutthroat
trout
was
reduced
from
76%
to
4%
when
fine
sediment
was
added
to
redds.
NAHB
(
2000)
reported
that
as
fry
grow
into
juvenile
fish
they
seek
out
the
slow
moving
water
at
the
channel
edges
for
cover.
These
areas
also
are
favored
for
deposition
of
suspended
sediment.
When
these
areas
are
filled
with
excess
20
sediment,
sheltered
space
is
lost,
and
the
juveniles
are
forced
out
into
the
channel
to
compete
at
a
disadvantage
with
the
adult
fish.
Waters
(
1995)
also
found
that
juveniles
face
habitat
degradation
from
the
sedimentation
of
pools.
Information
quantitatively
relating
embeddedness
levels
to
effects
on
aquatic
fauna
is
limited.

Embeddedness
in
the
range
of
67
percent
caused
changes
in
the
macroinvertebrate
fauna.
Increased
embeddedness
of
cobbles
(
fines
filling
spaces
around
the
rocks)
led
to
lower
density
of
fry
found
by
Bjorn
et
al.
(
1977).
Nelson
et
al.
(
1997)
found
an
average
embeddedness
of
35
percent
in
natural
streams
in
granitic
watersheds
(
i.
e.,
South
Fork
Salmon
River,
Idaho).
Based
on
their
review
of
existing
data,
Chapman
and
McLeod
(
1987)
were
unwilling
to
generalize
on
the
effects
of
embeddedness
level
of
surface
fines
and
salmonid
rearing
densities.
They
did
conclude
that
abundance
of
insects
declines
at
an
embeddedness
level
of
about
two­
thirds
to
three­
quarters.
They
also
found
that
embeddedness
levels
this
high
would
probably
violate
spatial
needs
of
overwintering
fish
for
sediment­
free
interstices.

NAHB
(
2000)
found
that
invertebrate
study
results
are
often
complicated
by
the
fact
that
the
various
invertebrate
species
in
a
community
responds
very
differently
to
increased
sediment
levels.
Aquatic
insect
densities
may
decline
at
embeddedness
levels
of
approximately
two­
thirds
to
three­
quarters.

In
the
Payette
and
Boise
Forest
Plan
thresholds
for
streams
in
the
South
Fork
Salmon
River
watershed
were
set
contingent
on
1988
sediment
conditions,
however,
Nelson
et
al.
(
1997)
found
them
too
restrictive
and
came
up
with
embeddedness
targets
and
free
matrix
percentage
appropriate
for
their
findings
of
35
percent
average
natural
embeddedness
conditions
in
the
river.

Levels
of
embeddedness
linked
with
high,
moderate,
or
low
habitat
conditions
for
endangered
species
were
determined
for
Clearwater
and
Nez
Perce
National
Forests
and
Cottonwood
(
Idaho)
area
BLM/
USDA­
FS
et
al.
(
1998).
High
levels
of
habitat
conditions
were
associated
with
embeddedness
<
20
percent.
At
>
30
percent,
habitat
conditions
were
considered
low.
Intermediate
embeddedness
was
considered
a
moderate
habitat
condition.
21
State
Targets
Several
approved
Total
Maximum
Daily
Load
(
TMDL)
studies
in
California
have
a
target
for
riffle
embeddedness
that
is
<=
25
percent
or
a
decreasing
trend
toward
25
percent.
While
the
25
percent
figure
is
universal
in
the
TMDLs
that
consider
embeddedness,
there
is
little
supporting
evidence
for
this
threshold.
The
fact
that
an
improving
trend
is
also
acceptable
shows
that
the
threshold
was
loosely
interpreted.
New
Mexico
has
established
embeddedness
thresholds
for
aquatic
life
use
support.
Streambeds
that
are
less
than
33
percent
embedded
represent
fully
supporting
sediment
conditions
and
are
not
compared
to
reference
conditions.
For
streams
with
greater
than
33
percent
embeddedness,
support
is
defined
in
comparison
to
reference
conditions.
NMED
(
2002)
found
that
embeddedness
values
less
than
27
percent
greater
than
reference
values
are
supporting
and
embeddedness
values
more
than
40
percent
greater
than
reference
conditions
are
non­
supporting.

Surface
Sediment
Surface
sediment
describes
the
percentage
of
streambed
area
with
exposed
fine
sediments.
Targets
are
developed
to
describe
thresholds
of
suitability
of
stream
substrates
for
invertebrate
and
salmonid
habitation.
Using
the
Wolman
pebble
count
method,
percent
surface
fines
may
be
calculated.
The
same
method
is
also
used
to
determine
the
median
substrates
size
(
d50).
This
is
used
as
a
sediment
target.
The
percentage
of
area
is
one
measure,
but
particle
size
distribution,
geometric
mean
particle
size,
median
particle
size,
or
other
indices
like
fredle
index
may
be
used
to
describe
the
streambed's
exposed
fine
sediment
area.

Salmonids
prefer
mid­
sized
substrates
with
interstitial
cover
to
either
fine
sediment
or
boulders
and
bedrock.
Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera,
and
Trichoptera
(
important
fish­
food
organisms)
also
respond
positively
to
gravel
and
cobble
substrates
(
Waters
1995).
However,
the
percent
coverage
of
fine
sediments
by
area
and
the
effects
on
salmonids
and
invertebrates
have
not
been
extensively
investigated.
Wessche
(
1985)
found
that
the
diversity
of
the
available
cover
for
bottom
fauna
appears
to
decrease
as
the
mean
particle
size
decreases.
This
study
found
that
substrate
dominated
by
rubble
is
the
most
productive.
Substrate
particle
size
is
important
because
it
affects
permeability,
which
22
ensures
an
adequate
flow
of
water
through
the
redd.
Wessche
also
found
that
if
the
bottom
materials
contain
<=
5
percent
by
volume
of
sands
and
silts
that
pass
through
the
0.833
mm
sieve,
the
substrate
is
considered
to
have
high
permeability;
when
the
materials
contain
>=
15
percent,
its
permeability
is
considered
low.

Richards
and
Bacon
(
1994)
in
their
longitudinal
study
of
Bear
Valley
Creek,
Idaho,
found
stream
size
influenced
macroinvertebrate
colonization
of
the
streambed
surface
more
than
fine
sediment
accumulation.
Surface
fines
may
be
most
useful
in
trend
analysis.
Hill
et
al.
(
2000)
found
that
percent
fines
(<
2
mm)
negatively
correlated
with
periphyton
biomass
in
mid­
Atlantic
streams.
In
a
study
of
562
streams
in
four
northwestern
states,
Raylea
et
al.
(
2000)
found
that
changes
in
invertebrate
communities
(
especially
Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera,
Trichoptera
[
EPT])
occur
as
fine
sediments
(<=

2
mm)
increase
above
20
percent
coverage
by
area.

In
an
analysis
of
data
from
279
stream
sites
in
Idaho,
Mebane
(
2001)
found
that
higher
levels
of
surface
sediment
less
than
6.0
mm
negatively
affected
EPT
taxa
and
salmonid
and
sculpin
fish
species.

Significant
(
p
<
0.05)
inverse
relationships
between
number
of
EPT
taxa
and
percentage
of
fine
sediment
measured
across
both
bankfull
and
instream
channel
widths
were
found.
More
age
classes
of
salmonids
and
sculpins
were
significantly
(
p
<
0.05)
associated
with
less
instream
fine
sediments.

Multiple
age
classes
of
both
salmonids
and
sculpins
were
uncommon
where
average
instream
surface
fines
were
greater
than
30
percent,
and
nearly
absent
above
40
percent.
Zweig
et
al.
(
2001),
in
their
work
on
four
Missouri
streams,
determined
that
taxa
richness
significantly
decreased
in
a
linear
manner
with
increasing
deposited
sediment
in
3
of
4
streams
(
over
a
range
of
0
to
100
percent
deposited
sediments).
Density,
Ephemeroptera,
Plecoptera,
Trichoptera
(
EPT)
richness,
and
EPT
density
were
significantly
negatively
correlated
with
deposited
sediment
across
all
four
streams.
Taxa
richness
and
EPT/
Chironomidae
richness
were
significantly
negatively
correlated
in
three
streams.

Hale
et
al.
(
1985)
investigated
the
preferred
particle
size
for
the
Habitat
Suitability
Index
Model
for
chum
Salmon
and
assumed
that
a
substrate
composition
of
gravel
10
to
100
mm
(
and
<
10
percent
fines)
is
excellent.
As
the
amount
of
overlying
sediment
and
the
percentage
of
fines
becomes
too
great,
damage
to
the
eggs
and
blockage
of
the
emergence
of
the
fry
is
possible.
Hassler
(
1970)
23
showed
that
silt
deposition
of
1.0
mm
per
day
was
associated
with
97
percent
mortality
or
higher
in
northern
pike.
When
silt
covered
eggs
for
a
period
greater
than
six
days,
mortalities
were
lower.

Hassler
also
found
that
after
hatching
food
availability
was
a
more
important
factor
than
temperature
change
or
silt
deposition
on
the
survival
of
yolk­
sac
larvae.

A
relationship
exists
between
channel
morphology
and
the
expected
sediment
composition
in
a
well
adjusted
or
dynamically
equilibrated
channel.
Overton
et
al.
(
1995)
summarized
sediment
monitoring
in
the
Salmon
River
basin,
Idaho,
and
found
that
natural
conditions
for
surface
sediment
averaged
25
percent
in
A­
channels
(
SD
=
23),
23
percent
in
B­
channels
(
SD
=
21),
and
34
percent
in
C­
channels
SD
=
25).
Overall
mean
for
all
reaches
equaled
26
percent
with
a
standard
deviation
of
22.
Mebane
(
2001)
agreed
with
Overton
et
al.
regarding
natural
surface
sediment
coverage.

Percent
surface
fines
(
particles
<
6
mm)
were
interpreted
as
indicating
high,
moderate,
or
low
habitat
conditions
with
respect
to
endangered
species
determinations
in
the
Clearwater
and
Nez
Perce
National
Forests
and
Cottonwood
(
Idaho)
area
BLM
lands
(
USDA­
FS
et
al.
1998).
High
levels
of
habitat
conditions
were
associated
with
surface
fines
<=
10
percent
in
A­
and
B­
channels
and
<=
20
percent
in
C­
and
E­
channels.
At
>=
21
percent
in
A­
and
B­
channels
or
>=
31
percent
in
C­
and
Echannels
habitat
conditions
were
considered
low.
Intermediate
sediment
coverages
were
considered
moderate
habitat
conditions.
Surface
fine
sediment
levels
have
been
recommended
by
the
Forest
Service
and
Bureau
of
Land
Management
in
their
draft
Environmental
Impact
Statement
for
the
Upper
Columbia
River
Basin
(
Interior
Columbia
Basin
Ecosystem
Management
Project
1997).
Their
recommendations
are
stratified
by
channel
type
and
watershed
geology.

In
chinook
salmon
and
steelhead
trout
spawning
areas
of
the
South
Fork
Salmon
River
(
Idaho),

surface
and
subsurface
fine
sediment
(<
4.75
mm)
accumulations
were
monitored
for
a
20­
year
period
(
Platts
et
al.
(
1989).
The
period
began
with
a
logging
moratorium
imposed
because
of
detrimental
logging
activity,
followed
by
streambed
recovery,
and
then
a
resumption
of
limited
logging
activity.

In
the
worst
condition
(
1966),
surface
sediments
covered
as
much
as
46
percent
of
the
stream
area.

By
1985,
surface
sediments
averaged
19.7
percent
of
the
spawning
area
and
further
recovery
seemed
possible.
24
NAHB
(
2000)
found
a
notable
absence
of
data
regarding
effects
of
suspended
sediments
on
warmwater
fish.
They
also
found
evidence
that
some
warmwater
fish
may
be
able
to
spawn
on
muddy
substrate.

Studies
on
the
effects
of
surface
sediment
from
construction
activities
are
limited.
However,
one
study
by
Reed
(
1997)
did
reveal
that
sediment
from
road
construction
in
Northern
Virginia
reduced
aquatic
insect
and
fish
communities
by
up
to
85
percent
and
40
percent,
respectively.

Subsurface
Sediment
Surface
fines
and
embeddedness
are
apparent
to
the
human
observer,
and
are
thus
relatively
easy
to
measure,
but
subsurface
or
depth
fines
also
have
a
major
effect
on
the
suitability
of
spawning
habitats.

The
amount
of
subsurface
fine
sediments
as
measured
at
the
head
of
riffles
in
likely
spawning
areas
can
be
an
indication
of
redd
site
suitability,
conditions
for
egg
survival,
and
alevin
emergence
in
the
constructed
redd,
as
well
as
habitat
quality
for
fry
and
prey.

Information
on
the
biological
effects
of
subsurface
sediment
varies
according
to
the
size
of
sediment
and
geographic
area
of
concern.
Some
of
the
variability
is
reduced
by
standardizing
the
habitat
and
stream
types
(
e.
g.,
Rosgen
[
1994]
level
II)
sampled.

Subsurface
sediment
targets
can
serve
as
a
measure
of
suitability
for
fish
spawning
grounds,
and
they
are
most
applicable
in
riffles
and
spawning
areas
in
streams
with
gravel/
cobble/
boulder
streambeds.

If
there
are
excessive
subsurface
fines
they
can
have
detrimental
effects
on
salmonid
and
invertebrate
habitat
suitability
and
redd
conditions.
In
the
western
U.
S.
redd
construction
is
often
upstream
from
riffles
or
at
the
tail
end
of
pools
where
there
is
a
net
flow
of
stream
water
downward
into
the
substrate.
Where
upwelling
groundwater
rather
than
surface
irrigates
the
substrate,
the
fines
are
no
longer
in
the
position
to
block
the
flow
of
water
into
the
redd,
and
therefore
are
a
less
important
threat
(
Waters,
1995).

The
target
for
subsurface
sediments
is
supported
by
studies
of
salmonid
embryo
survival
rates
in
redds
25
with
varying
fine
sediment
composition.
Sediment
particle
size
must
be
suitable
to
allow
fry
to
migrate
to
the
sediment
surface.
NAHB
(
2000)
found
that
in
the
cases
they
reviewed,
the
fine
sediment
fraction
has
the
greatest
impact
on
fry
emergence
by
"
cementing"
spaces
between
gravels
and
boulders.
McMahon
(
1983)
reported
that
in
the
Habitat
Suitability
Index
report
model
for
coho
salmon,
survival­
to­
emergence
of
coho
salmon
fry
was
high
at
<=
5
percent
fines,
but
dropped
sharply
at
>=
15
percent
fines.
Kioski
(
1966)
in
Raleigh
(
1986)
reported
that
pre­
emergent
salmonid
eggs
were
entombed
(
could
not
emerge)
with
>=
15
percent
fines
on
the
stream
substrate.

A
comparison
of
ambient
streambed
subsurface
fines
to
substrate
composition
in
adjacent
redds
was
made
by
Kondolf
(
2000),
who
found
that
redds
typically
had
one­
third
less
fine
sediment
than
the
adjacent
streambed
throughout
the
incubation
period.
This
is
partly
caused
by
the
fact
that
spawning
involves
some
gravel
cleaning
actions.
However,
redd
sediment
compositions
can
still
be
used
to
detect
trends
or
ranks
of
condition
(
not
numerically
absolute
conditions).

Other
studies
on
sediment
and
salmonid
survival
abound.
Hall
(
1986)
found
survival
(
eyed
egg
to
emergence)
of
coho,
chinook,
and
chum
salmon
to
be
only
7­
10
percent
in
gravel
mixtures
made
up
of
10
percent
fines
<
0.85
mm
as
compared
to
50­
75
percent
survival
in
gravel
mixtures
with
no
fines
<
0.85
mm.
Reiser
and
White
(
1988)
observed
little
survival
of
steelhead
and
chinook
salmon
eggs
beyond
10­
20
percent
fines
<
0.84
mm.
In
a
laboratory
study,
fry
survival
declined
significantly
when
fines
<
0.25
mm
in
diameter
approached
5
percent
of
the
substrate
in
the
egg
pocket
of
artificial
trout
redds
(
Bjornn
et
al.,
1998).
In
the
Kootenai
National
Forest
(
MT),
numbers
of
bull
trout
redds
were
compared
to
percent
subsurface
fines
(
Wegner
1998,
2003a).

The
numbers
of
redds
were
apparently
negatively
related
to
percent
subsurface
fines
in
spawning
areas,
though
the
comparisons
were
not
statistically
rigorous
and
another
report
showed
ambiguous
response
to
slight
changes
(
Wegner,
2003b).
Raleigh
et
al.
(
1986)
assumed
that
optimal
spawning
gravel
conditions
for
brown
trout
are
less
than
or
equal
to
5
percent
fines,
whereas
the
proportion
of
fines
greater
than
30
percent
is
assumed
to
result
in
low
survival
of
embryos
and
emerging
fry.

According
to
Lisle
and
Eads
(
1991),
the
"
threshold
of
concern"
for
fine
sediment
content
varies
among
experiments,
species
and
grain
size,
but
most
commonly
falls
around
20
percent.
As
an
26
indication
of
the
cause
of
this
relationship,
dissolved
oxygen
in
the
redds
was
inversely
related
to
the
percentage
of
fines
under
0.85
mm.

In
a
study
of
Yellowstone
cutthroat
trout,
Thurow
and
King
(
1994)
described
redd
siting
and
substrate
characteristics,
and
tested
the
effect
of
habitat
conditions
on
the
completed
redds
in
Pine
Creek,
Idaho.
They
found
that
the
spawned
sites
contained
particles
up
to
100
mm,
though
most
were
less
than
32
mm,
20
percent
were
less
than
6.35
mm,
and
5
percent
were
less
than
0.85
mm.

Results
from
Nelson
et
al.,
(
2002b)
showed
that
in
important
spawning
areas
of
the
Payette
and
Boise
National
Forests,
smaller
fines
(<
0.85
mm)
consistently
represented
less
than
10
percent
of
the
core
samples.
With
the
exception
of
one
site
that
had
been
severely
degraded
by
historic
mining
activities,

the
percentage
of
smaller
fines
averaged
approximately
5
percent
over
a
25­
year
monitoring
period.

However,
in
these
regions
of
restricted
logging,
the
percentages
of
larger
fines
(<
6.3
mm)
from
the
same
sample
locations
were
routinely
found
to
be
near
30
percent.
While
these
are
not
pristine
watersheds,
they
have
been
managed
for
sediment
reduction
since
the
1960s
(
with
a
20­
year
logging
moratorium
followed
by
limited
logging).

Upon
testing
a
fisheries
sediment
response
model
in
the
Clearwater
River
drainage,
Nelson
and
Platts
(
1988)
recommended
that
three
tiers
of
subsurface
sediment
conditions
be
delineated.
At
<
20
percent
subsurface
fines
(<
6.3
mm),
the
conditions
are
considered
good
for
embryo
incubation
and
survival.

From
20
­
to
27
percent,
conditions
are
marginal
and
influences
of
other
environmental
factors
cause
variable
survivability.
Above
27
percent,
subsurface
fines,
survivability
was
considered
improbable.

NAHB
(
2000)
cites
NCASI
(
1984)
laboratory
studies
of
coarse
sediment
deposition
indicating
that
coarser
sediment
that
blocks
smaller
fines
from
entering
the
egg
pocked
while
allowing
sufficient
water
flow
can
help
egg
to
survive.
(
Nearly
90
percent
salmonid
eggs
survived
with
20
percent
fines
when
the
fines
were
defines
as
less
than
6.4
mm
 
considered
larger
fines.)

Federal
land
management
agencies
(
Forest
Service
and
BLM)
have
developed
guidelines
specific
to
their
local
conditions.
Evaluation
of
the
effects
of
subsurface
sediment
on
habitat
conditions
on
Clearwater
and
Nez
Perce
National
Forests
and
Cottonwood
(
Idaho)
area
BLM
lands
27
showed
high
levels
of
habitat
conditions
associated
with
<
20
percent
fines
(<=
6
mm)
at
depth,
while
at
>
25
percent
fines,
habitat
conditions
were
considered
low
(
USDA­
FS
et
al.,
1998).

On
the
Salmon­
Challis
National
Forest,
the
Forest
Plan
for
the
Challis
Zone
sets
a
threshold
of
30
percent
fines
<
6.3
mm
such
that
activities
which
would
result
in
the
exceedance
of
the
threshold
are
not
allowed
(
Challis
National
Forest,
1987).
The
Forest
Plan
for
the
Salmon
Zone
has
standards
of
20
percent
fines
by
depth
for
streams
supporting
anadromous
fish
and
28.7
percent
fines
by
depth
for
streams
supporting
only
resident
salmonid
populations
(
Salmon
National
Forest,
1987).
Recent
thinking
on
the
Salmon
and
Challis
National
Forest
bases
subsurface
sediment
standards
on
watershed
geology
(
Betsy
Rieffenberger,
Salmon
and
Challis
National
Forest,
personal
communication).
In
quartzite
drainages,
the
Forest
classifies
streams
in
good
condition
as
having
subsurface
sediment
<

20
percent,
streams
in
fair
condition
have
20­
25
percent
fines,
and
streams
in
poor
condition
will
have
over
25
percent
fines.
In
granitic,
volcanic,
and
sedimentary
drainages,
streams
in
good,
fair,

and
poor
condition
will
have
<
25
percent,
25
­
30
percent,
and
>
30
percent
fines,
respectively.

Studies
documenting
effects
of
fine
sediment
on
macroinvertebrates
are
limited.
A
field
study
of
benthic
invertebrate
colonization
of
trays
with
varying
percentages
of
fine
sediments
showed
significant
(
though
weak)
responses
to
increases
in
sediment
from
0
to
30
percent
(
Angradi,
1999).

Riffle
Stability
The
Riffle
Stability
Index
(
RSI)
indicates
the
relative
percentage
of
the
streambed
that
is
mobile
during
channel
forming
flows.
Bed
mobility
is
related
to
pool
quality
and
abundance.
With
lower
RSI
values,
there
is
overall
greater
residual
pool
volume,
because
less
of
the
streambed
is
susceptible
to
moving.
Pool
habitat
provides
critical
refuge
for
juvenile
and
adult
salmonids.

The
RSI
has
been
used
as
an
indicator
of
beneficial
use,
especially
as
related
to
cold
water
biota.
The
RSI
is
measured
as
the
percentage
of
the
substrate
particles
(
from
a
Wolman
pebble
count)
that
are
smaller
than
the
largest
particles
that
are
moved
in
channel
forming
flows.
Particles
on
point
bars
are
measured
to
determine
the
largest
mobile
particles.
28
The
substrate
mobility
expressed
by
RSI
may
be
related
to
the
density
and
species
composition
of
stream
insects
(
Kappesser,
1993).
Cobb,
Galloway,
and
Flannagan
(
1992)
reported
a
decrease
in
insect
density
up
to
94
percent
in
an
unstable
riffle
compared
to
no
reduction
in
a
stable
riffle.
In
Colorado,
von
Guerard
(
1991)
concluded
that
as
the
grain
size
of
streambed
material
approaches
that
of
bedload,
benthic
invertebrate
populations
might
be
adversely
affected.
Kappesser
(
1993)
looked
at
RSIs
from
B­
channel
streams
in
northern
Idaho.
He
reported
an
RSI
range
from
29
riffles
in
unentered
(
e.
g.,
relatively
undisturbed)
watersheds
of
33
to
74
(
mean
50.8)
while
RSIs
from
286
riffles
in
entered
watersheds
ranged
from
38
to
100
(
mean
79.5).
In
a
survey
of
B­
channel
streams
of
the
St.
Joe
River
drainage
(
Idaho),
bull
trout
redds
were
consistently
found
in
reaches
with
RSI
values
less
than
65
and
were
missing
from
reaches
with
higher
RSI
values
(
Cross
and
Everest,
1992).

Pools
are
critical
habitat
for
salmonids
(
Spangler,
1997;
Saffel,
1994;
Stichert
et
al.,
2001;
Harwood
et
al.,
2002;
Kruzic
et
al.,
2001;
Jakober
et
al.,
2000;
Solazzi
et
al.,
2000).
As
riffle
stability
degrades,
pool
habitat
decreases,
reducing
daytime
and
winter
refugia.
Destabilized
stream
reaches
may
contain
lengthened
riffles
and
shallow
pools
(
Lisle,
1982).
In
the
St.
Joe
River
drainage
(
Idaho),

reaches
with
lower
RSI
values
had
greater
residual
pool
volume
(
Cross
and
Everest,
1992).

Riffle
stability
may
be
a
factor
effecting
redd
scour
if
bankfull
flows
occur
during
the
incubation
period.
The
likelihood
of
mortality
from
scour
increases
for
stocks
of
fish
incubating
during
seasons
when
peak
flows
commonly
occur
(
Seegrist
and
Gard,
1972).
To
avoid
scouring
flows
that
would
disturb
deposited
eggs,
salmonids
either
bury
their
eggs
below
the
annual
scour
depth
or
avoid
egg
burial
during
times
of
likely
bed
mobility.
Such
protective
patterns
were
noted
in
west­
slope
Pacific
Northwest
watersheds
(
Montgomery
et
al.,
1999),
and
are
likely
to
be
prevalent
throughout
Idaho.

Intergravel
Dissolved
Oxygen
One
effect
of
the
accumulation
of
fine
sediment
in
the
aquatic
environment
is
reduced
permeability
of
the
substrate
resulting
in
less
oxygen
exchange
to
support
fish
embryos
and
macroinvertebrates.
Salmonids
excavate
streambed
substrate
to
deposit
eggs
then
backfill
the
"
egg
29
pocket"
to
protect
the
eggs
during
the
incubation
period.
The
eggs
are
dependent
on
the
flow
of
oxygen­
rich
water
through
the
substrate
to
survive.
The
accumulation
of
fines
in
the
redd
restricts
water
flow
and
reduces
oxygen
to
the
eggs
which
results
in
decreasing
survival
(
Shapovalov
and
Berrian,
1939;
Wickett,
1954;
Shelton
and
Pollock,
1966).
Intergravel
dissolved
oxygen
is
more
of
a
concern
in
areas
outside
the
Idaho
batholith.
Fines
in
the
batholith
are
mostly
in
the
sand
to
fine
gravel
range
and
permeability
associated
with
these
textures
is
not
restrictive
to
the
transport
of
dissolved
oxygen
(
Burton
et
al.,
1990).

Dissolved
oxygen
(
DO)
in
intergravel
flow
is
a
more
direct
measure
of
streambed
suitability
for
salmonid
egg
development
than
subsurface
sediments.
In
the
substrate,
an
increase
in
deposited
fines
restricts
the
flow
of
well­
oxygenated
water
into
the
substrate
to
replace
the
DO
consumed
by
normal
biodegradation.
Intergravel
flow
may
be
more
or
less
dependent
on
ambient
streambed
sediment
conditions,
depending
on
local
hyporheic
conditions.
If
water
flows
into
the
redd
from
the
overlying
water
column
then
there
is
the
chance
of
the
flow
being
choked
by
the
intrusion
of
fine
sediments
in
the
bedload.
If,
however,
redds
are
located
in
areas
of
hyporheic
discharge,
then
the
surface
sediment
conditions
and
delivery
during
incubation
may
be
less
important
because
the
oxygenated
water
source
is
from
below
the
redd.
Fall
chinook
salmon
and
bull
trout
select
spawning
sites
based
at
least
in
part
on
influences
of
hyporheic
flow
(
Spangler,
1997,
Geist,
1998).
Bull
trout
embryo
survival
was
found
to
be
significantly
higher
and
less
variable
in
areas
with
groundwater
discharge
and
higher
water
temperatures
over
the
incubation
period
(
Baxter
and
McPhail,
1999).

Several
studies
have
related
intergravel
dissolved
oxygen
to
egg/
fry
survival.
Survival
of
embryos
has
been
positively
correlated
with
intergravel
dissolved
oxygen
in
the
redds
for
steelhead
(
Coble,
1961)
and
brown
trout
(
Maret
et
al.,
2003).
Silver
et
al.
(
1963)
found
that
embryos
incubated
at
low
and
intermediate
DO
concentrations
produced
smaller
and
weaker
alevins
than
embryos
incubated
at
higher
concentrations.
Weak
sac
fry
cannot
be
expected
to
survive
rigorous
natural
conditions.
In
a
review
of
embryo
development
studies,
Chapman
(
1988)
noted
several
examples
of
developmental
impairment
at
lower
DO
concentrations,
but
did
not
recommend
a
single
threshold.
Bjornn
and
Reiser
(
1991)
recommended
that
intergravel
DO
concentrations
should
be
at
or
near
saturation,
and
that
temporary
reductions
should
drop
to
no
lower
that
5.0
mg/
L.
30
Observations
of
the
effects
of
intergravel
flow
on
macroinvertebrates
are
much
less
extensive
than
those
for
fish.
Excessive
sediment
affects
macroinvertebrates
by
accumulating
on
the
body
surfaces
and
reducing
the
effective
area
of
the
respiratory
structures
(
Lemly,
1982)
or
by
covering
pupae
cases
and
reducing
the
flow
of
oxygenated
water
to
the
metamorphosing
insect
(
Rutherford
and
Mackay,

1986).

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