Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
1­
1
SECTION
1:
OVERVIEW
1.1
INTRODUCTION
This
document
presents
technical
information
to
support
the
Agency's
analyses
and
complements
"Economic
Analysis
of
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
and
Standards
for
the
Construction
and
Development
Category,"
EPA­
821­
R­
02­
008,
and
"Environmental
Assessment
for
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
and
Standards
for
the
Construction
and
Development
Category,"
EPA
821­
R­
02­
009.

A
summary
of
the
information
contained
in
the
chapters
of
this
document
is
as
follows:

°
Chapter
2
presents
background
information
on
the
legal
authority
for
effluent
limitation
guidelines
and
the
existing
EPA
storm
water
program.

°
Chapter
3
presents
a
summary
of
the
data
collection
activities
conducted
to
support
the
proposal.

°
Chapter
4
summarizes
the
characteristics
of
the
construction
and
development
industry,
including
major
indicators
of
industry
size
and
annual
construction
activity.

°
Chapter
5
presents
information
and
data
on
erosion
and
sediment
control
(ESC)
best
management
practices
(BMPs)
used
by
this
industry,
including
applicability,
costs,
and
efficiencies.

°
Chapter
6
presents
a
description
of
the
regulatory
options
considered
by
EPA
for
developing
the
proposal,
as
well
as
a
walk­
through
of
the
provisions
of
each
proposed
option.

°
Chapter
7
presents
the
methodology
used
by
the
Agency
to
estimate
the
costs
of
the
proposed
options.

1.2
SUMMARY
AND
SCOPE
OF
PROPOSAL
The
proposed
rule
contains
three
options
for
controlling
storm
water
discharges
from
construction
sites.

°
Option
1
would
establish
inspection
and
certification
provisions
to
ensure
proper
implementation
of
controls.
This
option
would
apply
to
all
construction
sites
disturbing
one
or
more
acres
of
land
required
to
obtain
a
permit
under
the
existing
National
Pollutant
Discharge
Elimination
System
(NPDES)
storm
water
regulations.
This
option
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
1­
2
would
amend
the
NPDES
regulations
at
40
CFR
Part
122,
but
would
not
create
effluent
limitation
guidelines.

°
Option
2
would
add
minimum
requirements
for
preparation
of
a
Storm
Water
Pollution
Prevention
Plan
(SWPPP)
as
well
as
minimum
requirements
for
sizing
sediment
basins,
installing
erosion
and
sediment
controls,
providing
temporary
stabilization
to
exposed
soils,
and
conducting
regular
inspections.
Option
2
would
apply
to
all
sites
that
disturb
five
or
more
acres
of
land,
consistent
with
the
permitting
requirements
of
the
Phase
I
NPDES
storm
water
regulations.
This
option
would
create
a
new
effluent
guidelines
category
at
40
CFR
Part
450
and
would
also
modify
40
CFR
Part
122.

°
Option
3
would
not
establish
any
new
requirements.

EPA
estimated
that
Option
1
would
cost
approximately
$130
million
annually,
while
preventing
the
annual
discharge
of
approximately
5.25
million
tons
of
Total
Suspended
Solids
(TSS)
and
associated
turbidity
to
surface
waters.
The
estimated
annual
monetized
benefits
of
this
option
are
$10.4
million.
Option
2
is
estimated
to
cost
approximately
$505
million
annually,
while
preventing
the
discharge
of
approximately
11.1
million
tons
of
TSS
and
associated
turbidity
to
surface
waters
annually.
The
estimated
annual
monetized
benefits
of
Option
2
are
$22.0
million.
Option
3
is
not
expected
to
have
any
costs
or
benefits.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
2­
1
SECTION
2:
BACKGROUND
2.1
LEGAL
AUTHORITY
The
Environmental
Protection
Agency
(EPA)
is
proposing
Effluent
Limitation
Guidelines
for
discharges
associated
with
construction
and
development
activities
under
the
authority
of
Sections
301,
304,
306,
308,
402,
and
501
of
the
Clean
Water
Act
(CWA)
(the
Federal
Water
Pollution
Control
Act),
33
United
States
Code
(U.
S.
C.)
1311,
1314,
1316,
1318,
1342,
and
1361.
This
section
describes
EPA's
legal
authority
for
issuing
the
regulation,
existing
state
regulations,
and
other
federal
regulations
associated
with
construction
and
development
activities.

2.2
CLEAN
WATER
ACT
Congress
adopted
the
Clean
Water
Act
(CWA)
to
"restore
and
maintain
the
chemical,
physical,
and
biological
integrity
of
the
nation's
waters"
(Section
101(
a),
33
U.
S.
C.
1251(
a)).
To
achieve
this
goal,
the
CWA
prohibits
the
discharge
of
pollutants
into
navigable
waters
except
in
compliance
with
the
statute.
CWA
sec.
402
requires
"point
source"
discharges
to
obtain
a
permit
under
the
National
Pollutant
Discharge
Elimination
System
(NPDES).
These
permits
are
issued
by
EPA
regional
offices
or
authorized
State
agencies.

Following
enactment
of
the
Federal
Water
Pollution
Control
Amendments
of
1972
(Pub.
L.
92­
500,
October
18,
1972),
EPA
and
the
States
issued
NPDES
permits
to
thousands
of
dischargers,
both
industrial
(e.
g.
manufacturing,
energy
and
mining
facilities)
and
municipal
(sewage
treatment
plants).
As
required
under
Title
III
of
the
Act,
EPA
promulgated
effluent
limitation
guidelines
and
standards
for
many
industrial
categories,
and
these
requirements
are
incorporated
into
the
permits.

The
Water
Quality
Act
of
1987
(Pub.
L.
100­
4,
February
4,
1987)
amended
the
CWA.
The
NPDES
program
was
expanded
by
defining
municipal
and
industrial
storm
water
discharges
as
point
sources.
Industrial
storm
water
dischargers,
municipal
separate
storm
sewer
systems
and
other
storm
water
dischargers
designated
by
EPA
must
obtain
NPDES
permits
pursuant
to
Section
402(
p)
(33
U.
S.
C.
1342(
p)).
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
1
In
the
initial
stages
of
EPA
CWA
regulation,
EPA
efforts
emphasized
the
achievement
of
BPT
limitations
for
control
of
the
"classical"
pollutants
(e.
g.,
TSS,
pH,
BOD5
).
However,
nothing
on
the
face
of
the
statute
explicitly
restricted
BPT
limitation
to
such
pollutants.
Following
passage
of
the
Clean
Water
Act
of
1977
(Pub.
L.
95­
217,
December
27,
1977)
with
its
requirement
for
point
sources
to
achieve
best
available
technology
limitations
to
control
discharges
of
toxic
pollutants,
EPA
shifted
its
focus
to
developing
BAT
limitations
for
the
listed
priority
toxic
pollutants.

June
2002
2­
2
2.2.1
BEST
PRACTICABLE
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
CURRENTLY
AVAILABLE
In
guidelines
for
a
point
source
category,
EPA
may
define
BPT
effluent
limits
for
conventional,
toxic,
1
and
non­
conventional
pollutants.
In
specifying
BPT,
EPA
looks
at
a
number
of
factors.
EPA
first
considers
the
cost
of
achieving
effluent
reductions
in
relation
to
the
effluent
reduction
benefits.
The
Agency
also
considers
the
age
of
the
equipment
and
facilities,
the
processes
employed
and
any
required
process
changes,
engineering
aspects
of
the
control
technologies,
non­
water
quality
environmental
impacts
(including
energy
requirements),
and
such
other
factors
as
the
Agency
deems
appropriate
(CWA
sec.
304(
b)(
1)(
B)).
Traditionally,
EPA
establishes
BPT
effluent
limitations
based
on
the
average
of
the
best
performance
of
facilities
within
the
category
of
various
ages,
sizes,
processes
or
other
common
characteristics.
Where
existing
performance
is
uniformly
inadequate,
EPA
may
require
higher
levels
of
control
than
currently
in
place
in
a
category
if
the
Agency
determines
that
the
technology
can
be
practically
applied.
(US
Senate,
1973,
p.
1468).

In
addition,
the
Act
requires
a
cost­
reasonableness
assessment
for
BPT
limitations.
In
determining
the
BPT
limits,
EPA
considers
the
total
cost
of
treatment
technologies
in
relation
to
the
effluent
reduction
benefits
achieved.
This
inquiry
does
not
limit
EPA's
broad
discretion
to
adopt
BPT
limitations
that
are
achievable
with
available
technology
unless
the
required
additional
reductions
are
"wholly
out
of
proportion
to
the
costs
of
achieving
such
marginal
level
of
reduction."
(US
Senate,
1973,
p.
170)
Moreover,
the
inquiry
does
not
require
the
Agency
to
quantify
benefits
in
monetary
terms.
See,
for
example,
American
Iron
and
Steel
Institute
v.
EPA,
526
F.
2d
1027
(3rd
Cir.,
1975).

In
balancing
costs
against
the
benefits
of
effluent
reduction,
EPA
considers
the
volume
and
nature
of
expected
discharges
after
application
of
BPT,
the
general
environmental
effects
of
pollutants,
and
the
cost
and
economic
impacts
of
the
required
level
of
pollution
control.
In
past
effluent
limitation
guidelines
and
standards,
BPT
cost­
reasonableness
removal
figures
have
ranged
from
$0.21
to
$33.71
per
pound
removed
in
year
2000
dollars.
In
developing
guidelines,
the
Act
does
not
require
consideration
of
water
quality
problems
attributable
to
particular
point
sources,
or
water
quality
improvements
in
particular
bodies
of
water.
Accordingly,
EPA
has
not
considered
these
factors
in
developing
the
limitations
being
proposed
today.
See
Weyerhaeuser
Company
v.
Costle,
590
F.
2d
1011
(D.
C.
Cir.
1978).
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
2­
3
2.2.2
BEST
CONVENTIONAL
POLLUTANT
CONTROL
TECHNOLOGY
The
1977
amendments
to
the
CWA
required
EPA
to
identify
effluent
reduction
levels
for
conventional
pollutants
associated
with
BCT
technology
for
discharges
from
existing
point
sources.
BCT
is
not
an
additional
limitation,
but
replaces
Best
Available
Technology
(BAT)
for
control
of
conventional
pollutants.
In
addition
to
other
factors
specified
in
sec.
304(
b)(
4)(
B),
the
CWA
requires
that
EPA
establish
BCT
limitations
after
consideration
of
a
two­
part
costreasonableness
test.
EPA
explained
its
methodology
for
the
development
of
BCT
limitations
in
July
1986
(51
FR
24974).

Section
304(
a)(
4)
designates
the
following
as
conventional
pollutants:
biochemical
oxygen
demand
(BOD5
),
total
suspended
solids
(TSS),
fecal
coliform,
pH,
and
any
additional
pollutants
defined
by
the
Administrator
as
conventional.
The
Administrator
designated
oil
and
grease
as
an
additional
conventional
pollutant
on
July
30,
1979
(44
FR
44501).
A
primary
pollutant
of
concern
at
construction
sites,
sediment,
is
measured
as
TSS.

2.2.3
BEST
AVAILABLE
TECHNOLOGY
ECONOMICALLY
ACHIEVABLE
In
general,
BAT
effluent
guidelines
(CWA
sec.
304(
b)(
2))
represent
the
best
existing
economically
achievable
performance
of
direct
discharging
plants
in
the
subcategory
or
category.
The
factors
considered
in
assessing
BAT
include
the
cost
of
achieving
BAT
effluent
reductions,
the
age
of
equipment
and
facilities
involved,
the
processes
employed,
engineering
aspects
of
the
control
technology,
potential
process
changes,
non­
water
quality
environmental
impacts
(including
energy
requirements),
and
such
factors
as
the
Administrator
deems
appropriate.
The
Agency
retains
considerable
discretion
in
assigning
the
weight
to
be
accorded
to
these
factors.
An
additional
statutory
factor
considered
in
setting
BAT
is
"economic
achievability."
Generally,
EPA
determines
the
economic
achievability
on
the
basis
of
the
total
cost
to
the
subcategory
and
the
overall
effect
of
the
rule
on
the
industry's
financial
health.
The
Agency
may
base
BAT
limitations
upon
effluent
reductions
attainable
through
changes
in
a
facility's
processes
and
operations.
As
with
BPT,
where
existing
performance
is
uniformly
inadequate,
EPA
may
base
BAT
upon
technology
transferred
from
a
different
subcategory
or
from
another
category.
In
addition,
the
Agency
may
base
BAT
upon
manufacturing
process
changes
or
internal
controls,
even
when
these
technologies
are
not
common
industry
practice.

2.2.4
NEW
SOURCE
PERFORMANCE
STANDARDS
New
Source
Performance
Standards
(NSPS)
reflect
effluent
reductions
that
are
achievable
based
on
the
best
available
demonstrated
control
technology.
New
facilities
have
the
opportunity
to
install
the
best
and
most
efficient
production
processes
and
wastewater
treatment
technologies.
As
a
result,
NSPS
should
represent
the
greatest
degree
of
effluent
reduction
attainable
through
the
application
of
the
best
available
demonstrated
control
technology
for
all
pollutants
(i.
e.,
conventional,
non­
conventional,
and
priority
pollutants).
In
establishing
NSPS,
CWA
sec.
306
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
2­
4
directs
EPA
to
take
into
consideration
the
cost
of
achieving
the
effluent
reduction
and
any
nonwater
quality
environmental
impacts
and
energy
requirements.

2.2.5
PRETREATMENT
STANDARDS
FOR
EXISTING
SOURCES
AND
PRETREATMENT
STANDARDS
FOR
NEW
SOURCES
The
CWA
also
defines
standards
for
indirect
discharges,
i.
e.
discharges
into
publicly
owned
treatment
works
(POTWs).
These
are
Pretreatment
Standards
for
Existing
Sources
(PSES)
and
Pretreatment
Standards
for
New
Sources
(PSNS)
under
sec.
307(
b).
Because
EPA
has
identified
no
deliberate
discharges
directly
to
POTWs,
EPA
is
not
proposing
PSES
or
PSNS
for
the
Construction
and
Development
Category.
The
information
reviewed
by
the
Agency
indicates
that
the
vast
majority
of
construction
sites
discharge
either
directly
to
waters
of
the
U.
S.
or
through
MS4s.
In
some
urban
areas,
construction
sites
discharge
to
combined
sewer
systems
(i.
e.,
sewers
carrying
both
storm
water
and
domestic
sewage
through
a
single
pipe)
which
lead
to
POTWs.
Sediment
is
susceptible
to
treatment
in
POTWs,
using
technologies
commonly
employed
such
as
primary
clarification,
and
EPA
has
no
evidence
of
interference,
pollutant
passthrough
or
sludge
contamination.

2.2.6
EFFLUENT
GUIDELINES
SCHEDULE
Clean
Water
Act
section
304(
m)
requires
EPA
to
publish
a
plan
every
two
years
that
consists
of
three
elements.
First,
under
sec.
304(
m)(
1)(
A),
EPA
is
required
to
establish
a
schedule
for
the
annual
review
and
revision
of
existing
effluent
guidelines
in
accordance
with
sec.
304(
b).
Section
304(
b)
applies
to
ELGs
for
direct
dischargers
and
requires
EPA
to
revise
such
regulations
as
appropriate.
Second,
under
sec.
304(
m)(
1)(
B),
EPA
must
identify
categories
of
sources
discharging
toxic
or
nonconventional
pollutants
for
which
EPA
has
not
published
BAT
ELGs
under
sec.
304(
b)(
2)
or
new
source
performance
standards
under
sec.
306.
Finally,
under
sec.
304(
m)(
1)(
C),
EPA
must
establish
a
schedule
for
the
promulgation
of
BAT
and
NSPS
for
the
categories
identified
under
subparagraph
(B)
not
later
than
three
years
after
being
identified
in
the
304(
m)
plan.
Section
304(
m)
does
not
apply
to
pretreatment
standards
for
indirect
dischargers,
which
EPA
promulgates
pursuant
to
sec.
307(
b)
and
307(
c)
of
the
Act.

On
October
30,
1989,
Natural
Resources
Defense
Council,
Inc.
(NRDC),
and
Public
Citizen,
Inc.,
filed
an
action
against
EPA
in
which
they
alleged,
among
other
things,
that
EPA
had
failed
to
comply
with
sec.
304(
m).
Plaintiffs
and
EPA
agreed
to
a
settlement
of
that
action
in
a
consent
decree
entered
on
January
31,
1992.
(Natural
Resources
Defense
Council
et
al
v.
Whitman,
D.
D.
C.
Civil
Action
No.
89­
2980).
The
consent
decree,
which
has
been
modified
several
times,
established
a
schedule
by
which
EPA
is
to
propose
and
take
final
action
for
eleven
point
source
categories
identified
by
name
in
the
decree
and
for
eight
other
point
source
categories
identified
only
as
new
or
revised
rules,
numbered
5
through
12.
EPA
selected
the
Construction
and
Development
category
as
the
subject
for
New
or
Revised
Rule
#10.
The
decree,
as
modified,
calls
for
the
Administrator
to
sign
a
proposed
ELG
for
the
C&
D
category
no
later
than
May
15,
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
2­
5
2002,
and
to
take
final
action
on
that
proposal
no
later
than
March
31,
2004.
A
settlement
agreement
between
the
parties,
signed
on
June
28,
2000,
requires
that
EPA
develop
regulatory
options
applicable
to
discharges
from
construction,
development
and
redevelopment,
covering
site
sizes
included
in
the
Phase
I
and
Phase
II
NPDES
storm
water
rules
(i.
e.
one
acre
or
greater).
EPA
is
required
to
develop
options
including
numeric
effluent
limitations
for
sedimentation
and
turbidity;
control
of
construction
site
pollutants
other
than
sedimentation
and
turbidity
(e.
g.
discarded
building
materials,
concrete
truck
washout,
trash);
BMPs
for
controlling
postconstruction
runoff;
BMPs
for
construction
sites;
and
requirements
to
design
storm
water
controls
to
maintain
pre­
development
runoff
conditions
where
practicable.
The
settlement
also
requires
EPA
to
issue
guidance
to
MS4s
and
other
permittees
on
maintenance
of
postconstruction
BMPs
identified
in
the
proposed
ELGs.
Further
discussion
of
approaches
not
pursued
by
EPA
at
this
time
may
be
found
in
the
docket
for
today's
proposal.

2.2.7
NPDES
PHASE
I
AND
II
STORM
WATER
RULES
The
National
Pollutant
Discharge
Elimination
System
(NPDES)
is
a
permit
system
established
under
the
CWA
to
enforce
effluent
limitation.
Operators
of
construction
activities,
including
clearing,
grading
and
excavation
are
required
to
apply
for
permit
coverage
under
the
NPDES
Phase
I
and
II
storm
water
rules.
Under
the
Phase
I
rule
(promulgated
in
1990),
construction
sites
of
5
or
more
acres
must
be
covered
by
either
a
general
or
an
individual
permit.
General
permits
covering
the
Phase
I
sites
have
been
issued
by
EPA
regional
offices
and
state
water
quality
agencies.
Permittees
are
required
to
develop
storm
water
pollution
prevention
plans
that
include
descriptions
of
BMPs
employed,
although
actual
BMP
selection
and
design
are
at
the
discretion
of
permittees
(in
conformance
with
applicable
state
or
local
requirements).

Construction
sites
between
1
and
5
acres
in
size
are
subject
to
the
NPDES
Phase
II
storm
water
rule
(promulgated
in
1999).
The
construction
activities
covered
under
Phase
II
are
termed
small
construction
activities
and
exclude
routine
maintenance
that
is
performed
to
maintain
the
original
line
and
grade,
hydraulic
capacity,
or
original
purpose
of
the
facility.
Under
the
Phase
II
program,
NPDES
permit
requirements
for
construction
activities
are
similar
to
the
Phase
I
requirements
because
they
will
be
covered
under
similar
general
permits.

2.3
POLLUTION
PREVENTION
ACT
OF
1990
The
Pollution
Prevention
Act
of
1990
(PPA)
(42
U.
S.
C.
13101
et
seq.,
Pub.
L.
101­
508,
November
5,
1990)
makes
pollution
prevention
the
national
policy
of
the
United
States.
The
PPA
identifies
an
environmental
management
hierarchy
in
which
pollution
"should
be
prevented
or
reduced
whenever
feasible;
pollution
that
cannot
be
prevented
should
be
recycled
in
an
environmentally
safe
manner,
whenever
feasible;
pollution
that
cannot
be
prevented
or
recycled
should
be
treated
in
an
environmentally
safe
manner
whenever
feasible;
and
disposal
or
release
into
the
environment
should
be
employed
only
as
a
last
resort..."
(42
U.
S.
C.
13103).
In
short,
preventing
pollution
before
it
is
created
is
preferable
to
trying
to
manage,
treat
or
dispose
of
it
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
2­
6
after
it
is
created.
According
to
the
PPA,
source
reduction
reduces
the
generation
and
release
of
hazardous
substances,
pollutants,
wastes,
contaminants
or
residuals
at
the
source,
usually
within
a
process.
The
term
source
reduction
"...
includes
equipment
or
technology
modifications,
process
or
procedure
modifications,
reformulation
or
redesign
of
products,
substitution
of
raw
materials,
and
improvements
in
housekeeping,
maintenance,
training,
or
inventory
control.
The
term
'source
reduction'
does
not
include
any
practice
which
alters
the
physical,
chemical,
or
biological
characteristics
or
the
volume
of
a
hazardous
substance,
pollutant,
or
contaminant
through
a
process
or
activity
which
itself
is
not
integral
to
or
necessary
for
the
production
of
a
product
or
the
providing
of
a
service."
In
effect,
source
reduction
means
reducing
the
amount
of
a
pollutant
that
enters
a
waste
stream
or
that
is
otherwise
released
into
the
environment
prior
to
out­
of­
process
recycling,
treatment,
or
disposal.

Although
the
PPA
does
not
explicitly
address
storm
water
discharges
or
discharges
from
construction
sites,
the
principles
of
the
PPA
are
implicit
in
many
of
the
practices
used
to
reduce
pollutant
discharges
from
construction
sites.
These
include
controls
that
minimize
the
potential
for
erosion
such
as
stabilization
of
disturbed
areas
as
soon
as
practicable.
These
controls
are
described
in
section
5
of
the
Development
Document.

2.4
STATE
REGULATIONS
States
and
municipalities
have
been
regulating
discharges
of
runoff
from
construction
and
land
development
industry
to
varying
degrees
for
some
time.
A
compilation
of
state
and
selected
municipal
regulatory
approaches
was
prepared
to
help
establish
the
baseline
for
national
and
regional
levels
of
control.
Data
were
collected
by
reviewing
state
and
municipal
web
sites,
summary
references,
state
and
municipal
regulations
and
storm
water
guidance
manuals.
All
states
(and
the
selected
municipalities)
were
contacted
to
confirm
the
data
collected
and
to
fill
in
data
gaps,
however,
only
87
percent
of
the
state
agencies
and
a
much
smaller
percentage
of
municipalities
responded.
The
state
and
municipal
regulatory
data
are
summarized
in
Section
3.3
and
the
complete
data
sheets
are
included
in
Appendix
A.

2.5
REFERENCES
US
Senate,
1973.
A
Legislative
History
of
the
Federal
Water
Pollution
Control
Act
Amendments
of
1972.
U.
S.
Senate
Committee
of
Public
Works,
Serial
No.
93­
1,
January
1973.
Washington,
DC.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
1
SECTION
3:
DATA
COLLECTION
3.1
INTRODUCTION
EPA
gathered
and
evaluated
technical
and
economic
data
from
various
sources
in
the
course
of
developing
the
effluent
limitation
guidelines
and
standards
for
the
construction
and
development
industry.
EPA
used
existing
data
sources
to
profile
the
industry
with
respect
to
general
industry
description,
industry
trends,
environmental
impacts,
and
erosion
and
sediment
control
best
management
practices
(BMPs)
and
cost.
This
chapter
details
the
data
sources
used
in
the
development
of
this
proposal.

3.2
LITERATURE
SEARCH
A
literature
search
was
performed
to
obtain
information
on
various
BMPs
that
pertain
to
the
construction
and
land
development
industry.
Journal
articles
and
professional
conference
proceedings
were
used
to
summarize
the
most
recent
BMP
effectiveness
data,
design
and
installation
criteria,
applicability,
advantages,
limitations,
and
cost.

3.3
COMPILATION
OF
STATE
AND
MUNICIPAL
EXISTING
CONTROL
STRATEGIES,
CRITERIA,
AND
STANDARDS
A
compilation
of
State
and
municipal
regulations
were
prepared
to
determine
national
and
regional
approaches
towards
controlling
construction
site
storm
water.
The
data
were
collected
by
reviewing
State
and
municipal
web
sites,
summary
references,
and
State
and
municipal
regulations
and
storm
water
guidance
manuals.
States
and
municipalities
were
contacted
to
confirm
the
data
collected
and
to
fill
in
data
not
available
by
these
methods.
Not
all
State
and
municipal
contacts
responded
or
were
able
to
provide
the
missing
information
sought.
While
87
percent
of
the
State
agencies
provided
confirmation
of
the
regulatory
data
collected
for
this
study,
a
much
smaller
percentage
of
municipalities
responded.

A
summary
of
criteria
and
standards
that
are
implemented
by
States
and
municipalities
as
of
August
2000
are
presented
in
Tables
3­
1
and
3­
2,
respectively.
State
requirements
are
generally
equal
to
or
less
stringent
than
municipalities
that
are
covered
under
the
federal
Clean
Water
Act
NPDES
Storm
Water
Program
because
State
requirements
apply
to
all
development
within
their
boundaries
including
single
site
development
and
low
to
high
density
developments.
NPDES
Storm
Water
Program
designated
municipalities
generally
have
a
population
of
100,000
or
more
and
can
collect
and
fund
the
resources
necessary
to
design,
implement,
and
monitor
separate
and
potentially
more
stringent
storm
water
management
programs.
Table
3­
1
contains
responses
from
47
of
the
54
State
controlling
agencies.
The
total
is
greater
than
50
because
Florida
has
5
intrastate
regional
authorities.
Some
State
data
were
uncertain
and
repeated
contacts
to
the
responsible
State
agencies
to
confirm
the
data
were
not
returned.
For
the
same
reason,
some
of
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
2
the
data
sought
from
municipal
agencies
also
are
not
available
for
this
report.
Tables
3­
1
and
3­
2
are
summaries
of
the
regulatory
controls
used
by
States
and
municipalities
as
presented
on
Table
A­
1:
State
regulations
on
the
control
of
construction
phase
storm
water.

Many
data
were
not
readily
available.
Appendix
A
presents
Tables
A­
1which
includes
all
of
the
data
that
was
collected.

The
data
collected
reflect
a
cross
section
of
the
US
geography
but
are
representative
primarily
of
municipalities
that
have
a
population
of
100,000
or
greater
and
relatively
few
municipalities
of
smaller
population.
Thirty­
one
municipalities
are
included
in
the
summary
tables,
which
is
a
relatively
small
data
set
compared
to
the
approximately
240
municipalities
with
NPDES
programs
and
nearly
3,000
municipalities
nationwide.
Therefore,
the
data
presented
for
the
States
in
Table
3­
1
is
fairly
comprehensive
while
data
for
the
municipalities
presented
in
Table
3­
2
is
not
comprehensive
but
does
reflect
the
diversity
of
management
techniques
used
at
the
municipal
level.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
3
Table
3­
1.
State
or
Regional
Planning
Authority
Requirements
for
Water
Quality
Protection
Standard
Number
of
States
with
Requirement
a
Percent
of
National
Developed
Acreage
with
Requirement
Percent
of
National
Developed
Acreage
without
Requirement
Percent
of
National
Developed
Acreage
without
Information
Solids
or
sediment
percent
reduction
11
24%
61%
15%

Numeric
effluent
limits
for
TSS,
settleable
solids,
or
turbidity
2
11%
76%
13%

Numeric
design
depth
or
volume
for
water
quality
treatment
22
53%
28%
19%

Habitat/
biological
measures
3
7%
80%
13%

Physical
in­
stream
condition
controls
8
17%
70%
13%

Water
Quality
or
Effluent
Monitoring
Requirement
3
6%
83%
11%

a
Florida
has
5
Water
Management
Districts.
If
any
of
these
Districts
met
a
particular
standard,
the
entire
state
annual
developed
acreage
was
counted.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
4
Table
3­
2.
Municipal
Planning
Authority
Requirements
Standard
Percent
of
Municipalities
Reviewed
with
Requirement
Percent
of
Municipalities
Reviewed
without
Requirement
Percent
of
Municipalities
without
Information
Design
storm
for
peak
discharge
control
39%
45%
16%

Solids
or
sediment
percent
reduction
7%
77%
16%

Numeric
design
depth,
storm,
or
volume
for
water
quality
treatment
–
–
–
Design
storm
for
flood
control
39%
16%
23%

Habitat/
biological
measures
3%
65%
32%

Physical
in­
stream
condition
controls
10%
58%
32%

Note:
This
table
reflects
data
collected
from
31
municipalities
Tables
3­
1
and
3­
2
indicate
that
the
following
key
control
measures
are
being
employed
by
States
and
municipal/
regional
authorities
to
implement
the
NPDES
Storm
Water
Program:

°
Storm
water
controls
designed
for
peak
discharge
control
°
Storm
water
controls
designed
for
water
quality
control
°
Storm
water
controls
designed
for
flood
control
°
Specified
depths
of
runoff
for
water
quality
control
°
Percent
reduction
of
loadings
for
water
quality
control
(primarily
solids
and
sediments)
°
Numeric
effluent
limits
for
water
quality
control
(primarily
total
suspended
solids,
settleable
solids,
or
turbidity)
°
Control
measures
for
biological
or
habitat
protection
°
Control
measures
for
physical
in­
stream
condition
controls
(primarily
streambed
and
streambank
erosion).

The
water
quantity
control
measures
for
peak
discharge
and
runoff
volume
controls
that
apply
to
the
post­
development
conditions
typically
are
not
applicable
during
the
construction
phase
when
the
site
is
disturbed.
Pollutant
control
measures
are
commonly
required
during
the
construction
phase,
though
the
requirements
for
post­
development
storm
water
management
are
broader
and
potentially
more
stringent.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
5
3.4
OTHER
DATA
SOURCES
3.4.1
PHASE
II
STORM
WATER
RULE
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS
The
Economic
Analysis
of
the
Final
Phase
II
Storm
Water
Rule
(USEPA,
1999)
estimated
Phase
II
Storm
Water
Rule
compliance
costs
for
two
major
categories
of
pollutant
controls
for
construction
sites:
erosion
and
sediment
control
BMPs
and
post­
construction
storm
water
management
controls.
Total
costs
for
implementing
the
Phase
II
Rule
encompass
expenditures
for
installation
of
erosion
and
sediment
control
technologies,
labor
requirements
for
submitting
a
Notice
of
Intent
(NOI)
to
be
covered
by
a
general
permit,
a
Notification
to
Municipalities,
a
Storm
Water
Pollution
Prevention
Plan
(SWPPP),
and
maintenance
costs.
Costs
were
derived
on
a
per­
site
basis
and
then
aggregated
to
the
State
and
national
level
based
on
the
number
of
building
permits
issued.
As
described
in
the
Economic
Analysis
Report
for
the
Phase
II
Rule,
census
data
were
used
to
project
the
annual
number
of
construction
permits
by
Standard
Industrial
Classification
(SIC)
Code
and
construction
permit
data
from
14
municipalities
were
used
to
categorize
construction
activities
by
site
size.

3.4.2
1997
USDA
NATIONAL
RESOURCE
INVENTORY
The
1997
National
Resources
Inventory
(NRI)
(USDA,
2000)
is
a
statistically
based
survey
that
has
been
designed
and
implemented
to
assess
conditions
and
trends
of
soil,
water,
and
related
resources
on
non­
Federal
lands
in
the
United
States.
The
NRI
is
conducted
every
5
years
by
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Agriculture's
(USDA)
Natural
Resources
Conservation
Service
(NRCS),
in
cooperation
with
the
Iowa
State
University
Statistical
Laboratory.
The
inventory
provides
scientifically
valid,
timely,
and
relevant
information
that
is
used
to
formulate
effective
agricultural
and
environmental
policies
and
legislation,
implement
resource
conservation
programs,
and
enhance
the
public's
understanding
of
natural
resources
and
environmental
conditions.

The
NRI
is
a
compilation
of
natural
resource
information
on
non­
Federal
land
in
the
United
States–
nearly
75
percent
of
the
country's
land
base.
The
inventory
captures
data
on
land
cover
and
use,
soil
erosion,
prime
farmland,
wetlands,
habitat
diversity,
selected
conservation
practices,
and
related
resource
attributes
at
more
than
800,000
scientifically
selected
sample
sites.
The
NRI
can
be
accessed
at
http://
www.
nrcs.
usda.
gov/
technical/
NRI/.

3.4.3
NATIONAL
STORM
WATER
BMP
DATABASE
The
National
Stormwater
BMP
Database,
developed
by
the
American
Society
of
Civil
Engineers
(ASCE),
is
designed
to
be
a
source
of
reliable
data
to
help
improve
water
quality
nationwide
by
sharing
consistent
and
transferable
information
on
the
performance
of
storm
water
best
management
practices.
The
database
helps
water
quality
professionals
across
the
United
States
learn
about
successful
BMPs
and
apply
proven
methods
to
local
water
quality
projects.
The
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
3­
6
database
is
based
on
extensive
screening
of
a
bibliography
of
more
than
800
existing
BMP
studies
and
was
designed
by
national
storm
water
experts
on
ASCE's
Urban
Water
Resources
Research
Council.
As
of
June
2002,
the
database
contains
data
on
198
BMPs.
Representative
information
provided
for
BMPs
includes
test
site
location,
researcher
contact
data,
watershed
characteristics,
regional
climate
statistics,
BMP
design
parameters,
monitoring
equipment
types,
and
monitoring
data
such
as
precipitation,
flow,
and
water
quality.
The
database
can
be
accessed
online
at
http://
www.
bmpdatabase.
org.

3.4.4
BMP
DESIGN
MANUALS
AND
GUIDANCE
DOCUMENTS
DEVELOPED
BY
GOVERNMENTAL
AND
OTHER
ORGANIZATIONS
A
variety
of
manuals
and
documents
were
used
to
obtain
information
on
design
and
effectiveness
of
various
BMPs.
Examples
include:
(1)
State
design
manuals
such
as
the
Virginia
Erosion
and
Sediment
Control
Handbook
(http://
www.
dcr.
state.
va.
us/
sw/
e&
s­
ftp.
htm),
the
Maryland
Storm
Water
Design
Manual
(http://
www.
mde.
state.
md.
us/
environment/
wma/
stormwatermanual),
and
the
Denver
Urban
Drainage
Criteria
Manual
(http://
www.
udfcd.
org);
(2)
Guidance
documents
such
as
the
Texas
Nonpoint
Source
Book
http://
www.
txnpsbook.
org)
and
EPA's
National
Menu
of
BMPs
(http://
www.
epa.
gov/
npdes/
menuofbmps/
menu.
htm);
and
(3)
Consensus
design
manuals
such
as
manuals
of
practice
on
storm
water
design
developed
by
ASCE
and
the
Water
Environment
Federation
(ASCE
and
WEF,
1992
and1998)
were
used
to
determine
various
management
strategies.
Links
to
on­
line
manuals
and
guidance
documents
are
provided
on
EPA's
website
at
http://
www.
epa.
gov/
waterscience/
guide/
construction/
.

3.5
REFERENCES
ASCE
and
WEF.
1992.
Design
and
Construction
of
Urban
Stormwater
Management
Systems.
ASCE
Manual
and
Report
on
Engineering
Practice
No.
77;
WEF
Manual
of
Practice
No.
FD­
20.
American
Society
of
Civil
Engineers,
New
York,
NY.
Water
Environment
Federation,
Alexandria,
VA.
http://
www.
asce.
org
and
http://
www.
wef.
org
.

ASCE
and
WEF.
1998.
Urban
Runoff
Quality
Management.
ASCE
Manual
and
Report
on
Engineering
Practice
No.
87;
WEF
Manual
of
Practice
No.
23.
American
Society
of
Civil
Engineers,
Reston,
VA.
Water
Environment
Federation,
Alexandria,
VA.
http://
www.
asce.
org
and
http://
www.
wef.
org
.

USEPA.
1999.
Economic
Analysis
of
the
Final
Phase
II
Storm
Water
Rule.
U.
S.
Environmental
Protection
Agency,
Office
of
Wastewater
Management.
Washington,
DC.

USDA.
2000.
1997
National
Resources
Inventory.
U.
S.
Department
of
Agriculture,
National
Resources
Conservation
Service,
Washington,
DC.
http://
www.
nrcs.
usda.
gov/
technical/
NRI/.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
1
SECTION
4:
INDUSTRY
PROFILE
4.1
INTRODUCTION
The
construction
sector
is
among
the
largest
and
most
important
sectors
in
the
national
economy,
accounting
for
approximately
4
percent
of
the
U.
S.
gross
domestic
product.
During
1997,
approximately
262,000
construction
companies
with
payroll
in
the
United
States
employed
nearly
2.4
million
workers
nationwide.
Another
1.6
million
workers
associated
with
construction
activities
were
self­
employed.
The
construction
industry
is
divided
into
three
major
subsectors:
general
building
contractors,
heavy
construction
contractors,
and
special
trade
contractors.
General
contractors
build
residential,
industrial,
commercial,
and
other
buildings.
Heavy
construction
contractors
build
sewers,
roads,
highways,
bridges,
and
tunnels.
Special
trade
contractors
typically
provide
carpentry,
painting,
plumbing,
and
electrical
services.

Because
the
proposed
effluent
guidelines
are
being
developed
to
address
water
quality
issues,
this
document
focuses
on
the
construction
subsectors
most
closely
associated
with
landdisturbing
activities.
General
contractors
and
heavy
construction
establishments
are
by
definition
the
most
likely
to
conduct
activities
that
could
affect
water
resources.
It
should
be
noted,
however,
that
for
individual
projects
responsibility
for
land­
disturbing
activities
and
potential
impacts
on
water
quality
might
not
be
obvious
because
general
contractors
often
subcontract
all
or
some
of
the
actual
construction
work.
Hence,
the
following
subsections
describe
the
subsector
categories
most
likely
to
be
responsible
for
land­
disturbing
activities
at
the
national
level.

4.2
INDUSTRY
DESCRIPTION
4.2.1
INDUSTRY
DEFINITION
AND
CLASSIFICATION
OF
SUBSECTORS
BY
NAIC
AND
SIC
CODES
The
construction
and
land
development
industry
is
classified
in
the
1997
North
American
Industry
Classification
System
(NAICS,
1997)
under
Sector
23,
Construction.
NAICS
1997
is
the
system
currently
used
for
classifying
industry
establishments
by
type
of
economic
activity.
It
replaced
the
U.
S.
Standard
Industrial
Classification
(SIC)
system.

Construction
work
includes
new
construction,
additions,
alterations,
and
repairs.
Establishments
identified
as
construction­
management
firms
are
also
included.
The
construction
sector
is
divided
into
three
types
of
activities
or
subsectors:

°
Subsector
233–
Building,
Developing,
and
General
Contracting
This
subsector
is
made
up
of
establishments
responsible
for
the
construction
of
building
projects.
Builders,
developers,
and
general
contractors,
as
well
as
land
subdividers
and
land
developers,
are
included
in
the
subsector.
The
construction
work
may
be
done
for
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
2
others
and
performed
by
custom
builders,
general
contractors,
design
builders,
or
turnkey
contractors.
This
construction
activity
may
be
for
sale
as
performed
by
speculative
or
operative
builders.

°
Subsector
234–
Heavy
Construction
This
subsector
comprises
establishments
engaged
in
the
construction
of
heavy
engineering
and
industrial
projects
(except
buildings),
such
as
highways,
power
plants,
and
pipelines.
Establishments
in
this
subsector
usually
assume
responsibility
for
entire
nonbuilding
projects,
but
they
may
hire
subcontractors
for
some
or
all
of
the
actual
construction
work.
Special
trade
contractors
are
included
in
this
group
if
they
are
engaged
in
activities
primarily
related
to
heavy
construction,
such
as
grading
for
highways.
The
kinds
of
establishments
in
this
group
include
heavy­
construction
general
contractors
and
design
builders.

°
Subsector
235–
Special
Trade
Contractors
This
subsector
comprises
establishments
engaged
in
specialized
construction
activities,
such
as
plumbing,
painting,
and
electrical
work.
The
activities
in
this
subsector
may
be
subcontracted
from
builders
or
general
contractors,
or
the
work
may
be
performed
directly
for
project
owners.
Special
trade
contractors
usually
perform
most
of
their
work
at
the
job
site.

Table
4­
1
provides
a
list
of
the
3­
digit
subsectors,
4­
digit
industry
groups
and
5­
digit
NAICS
industries
in
the
construction
sector.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
3
Table
4­
1.
1997
NAICS
Subsectors,
Industry
Groups,
and
Industries
Performing
Construction
Activities
That
Might
Disturb
Land
1997
NAICS
Sector
23
­
Construction
233
Building,
Developing,
and
General
Contracting
2331
Land
Subdivision
and
Land
Development
23311
Land
Subdivision
and
Land
Development
2332
Residential
Building
Construction
23321
23322
Single­
family
Housing
Construction
Multifamily
Housing
Construction
2333
Nonresidential
Building
Construction
23331
23332
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction
234
Heavy
Construction
2341
Highway,
Street,
Bridge,
and
Tunnel
Construction
23411
23412
Highway
and
Street
Construction
Bridge
and
Tunnel
Construction
2349
Other
Heavy
Construction
23491
23492
23493
23499
Water,
Sewer,
and
Pipeline
Construction
Power
and
Communication
Transmission
Line
Construction
Industrial
Nonbuilding
Structure
Construction
All
Other
Heavy
Construction
235
Special
Trade
Contractors
2357
Concrete
Contractors
23571
Concrete
Contractors
2359
Other
Special
Trade
Contractors
23593
Excavation
Contractors
Before
the
creation
of
the
NAICS,
construction
and
land
development
industries
were
classified
using
the
SIC
system.
Any
data
collected
before
January
1997
might
still
be
classified
under
that
system.
SIC
classifications
are
relevant
to
the
effluent
guidelines,
because
certain
U.
S.
Bureau
of
the
Census
(BOC)
data
for
the
construction
industry
were
collected
until
1994
and
therefore
classified
under
the
SIC
system
rather
than
the
NAICS.
Under
the
SIC
system,
industries
that
might
perform
land­
disturbing
activities
were
classified
under
Division
C–
Construction,
and
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
4
Division
H–
Finance,
Insurance,
and
Real
Estate.
These
divisions
include
the
following
SIC
major
groups:

°
SIC
Major
Group
15–
Building
Construction
General
Contractors
and
Operative
Builders
This
group
includes
general
contractors
and
operative
builders
primarily
engaged
in
the
construction
of
residential,
farm,
commercial,
or
other
buildings.
General
building
contractors
who
combine
a
special
trade
with
their
contracting
are
also
included.

°
SIC
Major
Group
16–
Heavy
Construction
Other
Than
Building
Construction
Contractors
This
group
includes
general
contractors
primarily
engaged
in
heavy
construction
other
than
building
construction,
such
as
highways
and
streets,
bridges,
sewers,
railroads,
irrigation
projects,
flood
control
projects,
and
marine
construction,
as
well
as
special
trade
contractors
primarily
engaged
in
activities
of
a
type
clearly
specialized
in
such
heavy
construction
and
not
normally
performed
on
buildings
or
building­
related
projects.

°
SIC
Major
Group
17–
Construction
Special
Trade
Contractors
This
group
includes
special
trade
contractors
who
undertake
activities
of
a
type
that
are
specialized
either
in
building
construction
or
in
both
building
and
nonbuilding
projects.

°
SIC
Major
Group
65–
Real
Estate
This
group
includes
real
estate
operators
and
the
owners
and
lessors
of
real
property,
as
well
as
buyers,
sellers,
developers,
agents,
and
brokers.

Major
groups
15
and
16
are
further
defined
by
the
type
of
construction
performed.
Table
4­
2
provides
a
list
of
the
more
specific
industry
groups
and
industries
that
might
perform
landdisturbing
activities.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
5
Table
4­
2.
1987
SIC
Industry
Groups
Performing
Construction
Activities
That
May
Disturb
Land
SIC
Major
Group
15
Industry
Group
152:
General
Building
Contractors
­
Residential
1521
General
Contractors
­
Single­
family
Houses
1522
General
Contractors
­
Residential
Buildings,
Other
Than
Single­
family
Industry
Group
153:
Operative
Builders
1531
Operative
Builders
Industry
Group
154:
General
Building
Contractors
­
Nonresidential
1541
General
Contractors
­
Industrial
Buildings
and
Warehouses
1542
General
Contractors
­
Nonresidential
Buildings,
Other
Than
Industrial
SIC
Major
Group
16
Industry
Group
161:
Highway
and
Street
Construction,
Except
Elevated
Highways
1611
Highway
and
Street
Construction,
Except
Elevated
Highways
Industry
Group
162:
Heavy
Construction,
Except
Highway
and
Street
1622
Bridge,
Tunnel,
and
Elevated
Highway
Construction
1623
Water,
Sewer,
Pipeline,
and
Communications
and
Power
Line
1629
Heavy
Construction
Not
Elsewhere
Classified
SIC
Major
Group
17
Industry
Group
179:
Miscellaneous
Special
Trade
Contractors
1771
Concrete
Work
1794
Excavation
Work
SIC
Major
Group
65
Industry
Group
655:
Land
Subdividers
and
Developers
6552
Land
Subdividers
and
Developers,
Except
Cemeteries
The
focus
of
this
Development
Document
is
on
construction
activities
carried
out
by
firms
covered
by
NAICS
codes
233
and
234
or
SIC
codes
15
and
16.
(As
discussed
in
Section
VI.
A
in
the
preamble
of
the
proposed
rule,
Special
Trade
Contractors,
NAICS
235
or
SIC
17,
are
typically
subcontractors
and
not
identified
as
NPDES
permittees.)
Furthermore,
the
residential,
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
6
non­
residential,
and
heavy
construction
subsectors
receive
the
greatest
emphasis,
because
they
account
for
the
vast
majority
of
construction
projects
and
are
responsible
for
most
of
the
land
disturbance
in
the
United
States.
The
following
subsections
describe
these
subsectors
in
terms
of
size,
distribution,
and
recent
growth
trends.

4.2.2
RESIDENTIAL
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
GROUP
Residential
Construction
Industry
Description.
The
U.
S.
Bureau
of
the
Census
(BOC),
a
division
of
the
Department
of
Commerce
(DOC),
divides
the
residential
construction
industry
into
two
categories.
The
first
encompasses
single­
family
housing
construction
and
includes
mobile
homes,
prefabricated
houses,
row
houses,
town
houses,
and
single­
family
detached
houses.
The
second
encompasses
multifamily
housing
construction
and
includes
high­
rise
apartments,
garden
apartments,
and
town
house
apartments
in
which
units
are
not
separated
by
ground­
to­
roof
walls.

Historic
Trends.
The
DOC
began
collecting
detailed
information
on
housing
starts
in
1963.
Data
on
housing
permits
and
starts
are
published
monthly
by
the
DOC
and
are
viewed
by
economists
as
leading
indicators
of
economic
activity.
More
detailed
industry
information
is
collected
through
the
Census
of
Construction
Industries
(CCI),
which
is
conducted
every
5
years
(in
years
ending
in
a
2
or
a
7)
as
part
of
the
Census
Bureau's
Economic
Census
program.
These
data
provide
the
most
detailed
snapshot
of
the
status
of
the
construction
industry.
The
CCI
covers
all
employer
establishments
primarily
engaged
in
construction
as
defined
by
the
NAICS
and
includes
nonresidential
construction
activities.
Table
4­
3
summarizes
housing
starts
for
the
period
from
1979
to
1999.

In
Table
4­
3,
the
number
of
construction
starts
is
shown
by
regional
location
and
type
of
structure.
The
table
also
provides
national
totals
for
both
single­
and
multifamily
housing
starts
(BOC,
2001).
As
shown
in
the
table,
single­
family
housing
starts
account
for
the
majority
of
housing
construction
starts.
Figure
4­
1
combines
single­
and
multifamily
housing
starts
and
graphically
depicts
annual
changes
during
the
1997­
1999
period.
The
number
of
construction
starts
for
privately
owned
housing
units
has
decreased
from
approximately
1.7
million
starts
in
1979
to
roughly
1.6
million
starts
in
1999
(BOC,
2001).
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
7
Table
4­
3.
Annual
Housing
Construction
Starts
by
Type
and
Region
(Starts
are
in
thousands)

Year
United
States
Northeast
Midwest
South
West
Singlefamily
Multifamily
Singlefamily
Multifamily
Singlefamily
Multifamily
Singlefamily
Multifamily
1979
1,745
123
55
243
106
522
225
306
165
1980
1,292
87
38
142
76
428
215
196
110
1981
1,084
84
33
110
55
363
198
148
92
1982
1,062
79
37
99
50
357
234
127
78
1983
1,703
123
45
153
65
557
378
234
148
1984
1,750
158
46
167
76
528
338
230
206
1985
1,742
182
70
148
92
504
278
239
230
1986
1,805
228
66
188
108
504
229
261
222
1987
1,621
204
65
203
95
485
149
255
165
1988
1,488
181
54
194
80
443
132
264
140
1989
1,376
132
47
190
76
409
127
272
124
1990
1,193
104
27
193
60
371
108
226
103
1991
1,014
99
14
191
42
353
62
197
57
1992
1,200
112
15
236
52
439
58
244
45
1993
1,288
116
11
251
47
498
63
261
41
1994
1,457
123
16
268
61
522
117
286
65
1995
1,354
102
16
233
57
485
130
256
76
1996
1,447
112
20
254
68
524
138
271
90
1997
1,474
111
26
238
66
507
164
278
86
1998
1,617
122
26
223
58
573
169
303
92
1999
1,641
126
29
289
59
580
167
308
84
Source:
BOC,
2001.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
8
0
200
400
600
800
1,000
1,200
1,400
1,600
1,800
2,000
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
Year
Annual
Housing
Starts
(thousands)

Figure
4­
1.
Annual
Housing
Starts
Housing
start
data
tend
to
reflect
the
health
of
the
U.
S.
economy.
Therefore,
as
shown
in
Figure
4­
1,
the
number
of
housing
starts
dropped
significantly
from
1986
to
1991
as
the
national
economy
fell
into
a
recession.
Conversely,
the
robust
economy
over
the
past
several
years
has
been
accompanied
by
a
strong
growth
in
housing
starts.

Industry
Size.
As
a
result
of
the
recent
strong
growth
in
demand
for
new
housing,
the
number
of
workers
employed
in
residential
construction
has
also
increased.
According
to
the
BOC
(1999b),
the
total
number
of
employees
in
the
housing
construction
industry
rose
from
452,257
in
1992
to
628,886
in
1997,
an
increase
of
almost
40
percent.
Table
4­
4
shows
the
number
of
workers
employed,
the
payroll
for
those
workers,
and
the
value
of
completed
construction
for
1997.
As
shown
in
the
table,
the
number
of
establishments
and
workers
associated
with
construction
of
single­
family
housing
greatly
exceeds
that
for
multifamily
housing
construction.
It
should
also
be
noted
that
although
construction
of
single­
family
homes
is
performed
by
both
small
and
large
firms,
most
multifamily
housing
construction
is
performed
by
large
firms.
Specifically,
a
special
study
by
the
Census
Bureau
(BOC,
2000a)
found
that
about
39
percent
of
single­
family
homes
are
built
by
small
builders
(fewer
than
25
units
in
the
year);
21
percent
by
medium
builders
(25­
99
units);
and
40
percent
by
large
builders
(more
than
100
units).
In
contrast,
construction
of
multifamily
housing
is
performed
primarily
by
larger
builders.
During
1997,
large
builders
constructed
77
percent
of
multifamily
housing
units.

The
value
of
construction
is
defined
as
work
done
by
general
contractors,
heavy
construction
contractors,
and
special
trade
contractors.
Included
in
these
estimates
are
new
construction,
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
1
Permits
issued
do
not
necessarily
translate
into
housing
starts,
since
a
permit
issued
in
one
year
may
not
lead
to
actual
construction
until
the
next
year.
Furthermore,
some
permits
issued
never
lead
to
actual
construction.
Nonetheless,
permit
counts
can
serve
as
a
good
indicator
of
construction
activity
in
the
near
future.

June
2002
4­
9
additions,
alterations
or
reconstruction,
and
maintenance
and
repair;
the
costs
of
industrial
and
other
special
equipment
not
an
integral
part
of
a
structure
are
excluded.
According
to
the
1997
Construction
Census,
the
value
of
completed
construction
exceeded
$161
billion.
Single­
family
housing
construction
accounted
for
almost
$147
billion,
or
more
than
90
percent
of
the
total.

Table
4­
4.
Residential
Construction
Industry
Profile
for
1997
Single­
Family
Housing
Construction
Multifamily
Housing
Construction
Total
number
of
employees
570,990
58,896
Number
of
construction
establishments
during
the
year
138,849
7,543
Payroll
(thousands)
$14,964,583
$1,794,143
Value
of
construction
completed
nationwide
$146,798,768
$14,487,308
State
with
the
highest
dollar
value
of
construction
work
for
establishments
with
payroll
California
($
18,137,680)
Florida
($
2,403,233)

Source:
BOC,
1999b,
1999c.

Single­
Family
Housing
Construction
Trends.
As
noted
earlier,
housing
construction
starts
increased
significantly
during
the
second
half
of
the
1990s.
In
1999,
single­
family
home
construction
starts
totaled
more
than
1.3
million,
a
level
not
reached
since
1978
(BOC
2001).

As
indicated
in
Table
4­
5
by
the
number
of
permits
issued,
Atlanta,
Georgia,
led
all
U.
S.
major
markets
for
single­
family
housing
construction
activity
in
1999
1
.
The
other
leading
market
areas
for
single­
family
construction
were
Phoenix,
Arizona;
Dallas­
Ft.
Worth,
Texas;
Chicago,
Illinois;
and
Washington,
D.
C.
Table
4­
5
also
shows
the
percent
change
in
construction
permits
issued
from
1998
to
1999
(U.
S.
Housing
Markets,
1999a).

Multifamily
Housing
Construction
Trends.
Construction
of
structures
with
multiple
housing
units
also
increased
significantly
during
the
1990s.
For
example,
construction
starts
of
these
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
10
buildings
increased
from
about
173,500
in
1991
to
more
than
338,500
in
1999,
an
increase
of
about
95
percent.

Table
4­
5.
Busiest
Markets
for
Single­
Family
Housing
Permits
for
1999
Market
Area
Single­
family
Housing
Permits
(1999)
Percent
Change
From
1998
Atlanta
25,066
+11%

Phoenix
21,290
+13%

Dallas­
Ft.
Worth
17,434
+6%

Chicago
14,954
+7%

Washington,
DC
14,703
0.07
Source:
U.
S.
Housing
Markets,
1999a.

Much
of
the
growth
in
multifamily
housing
was
in
the
construction
of
facilities
with
more
than
five
units.
According
to
U.
S.
Housing
Markets
(1999b),
the
top
five
busiest
markets
for
multifamily
construction
permits
for
1999
were
Dallas­
Ft.
Worth,
Texas;
Orlando,
Florida;
New
York­
Long
Island;
Puget
Sound,
Washington;
and
Houston,
Texas.
Table
4­
6
shows
the
number
of
multifamily
permits
and
the
percent
change
in
permits
issued
from
1998
to
1999.

Regional
Housing
Start
Trends
(Single­
family
and
Multifamily
Structures).
The
Census
Bureau
estimates
housing
starts
at
the
regional
level
through
statistical
analysis
of
its
survey
data.

Table
4­
6.
Busiest
Markets
for
Multifamily
Housing
Permits
for
1999
Market
Area
Multifamily
Housing
Permits
(1999)
Percent
Change
From
1998
Dallas­
Ft.
Worth
8,488
­15%

Orlando
7,303
+46%

New
York­
Long
Island
6,255
+55%

Puget
Sound
6,122
+19%

Houston
5,900
­50%

Source:
U.
S.
Housing
Markets,
1999b.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
2
The
Northeast
includes
the
following
states:
Connecticut,
Maine,
Massachusetts,
New
Hampshire,
New
Jersey,
New
York,
Pennsylvania,
Rhode
Island,
and
Vermont.

3
The
Midwest
includes
the
following
states:
Illinois,
Indiana,
Iowa,
Kansas,
Michigan,
Minnesota,
Missouri,
Nebraska,
North
Dakota,
Ohio,
South
Dakota,
and
Wisconsin.

4
The
South
includes
the
following
states:
Alabama,
Arkansas,
Delaware,
District
of
Columbia,
Florida,
Georgia,
Kentucky,
Louisiana,
Maryland,
Mississippi,
North
Carolina,
Oklahoma,
South
Carolina,
Tennessee,
Texas,
Virginia,
and
West
Virginia.

5
The
West
includes
the
following
states:
Alaska,
Arizona,
California,
Colorado,
Hawaii,
Idaho,
Montana,
Nevada,
New
Mexico,
Oregon,
Utah,
Washington,
and
Wyoming.

June
2002
4­
11
Figure
4­
2.
Bureau
of
Census
Housing
Regions
As
shown
in
Figure
4­
2,
the
Census
Bureau
divides
the
United
States
into
four
regions:
Northeast
2
,
Midwest
3
,
South
4
,
and
West
5
.
Table
4­
7
summarizes
changes
in
construction
starts
at
the
regional
level
for
the
years
1989
and
1999.

As
noted
earlier,
national
housing
starts
have
increased
significantly
over
the
past
decade.
At
the
regional
level,
however,
growth
rates
have
varied
to
a
large
degree.
As
shown
in
Figure
4­
3
and
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
12
summarized
in
Table
4­
7,
construction
of
housing
increased
by
nearly
40
percent
in
the
South,
whereas
construction
starts
in
the
Northeast
actually
decreased
by
almost
13
percent
from
1989
levels.
Housing
starts
in
the
Midwest
also
increased
significantly
over
1989
levels
while
housing
starts
in
the
West
remained
at
about
the
same
level
as
a
decade
earlier.

Table
4­
7.
Changes
in
Housing
Starts
by
Region
(1989
and
1999)

Region
1989
Housing
Starts
(in
thousands)
1999
Housing
Starts
(in
thousands)
Percent
Change
from
1989
to
1999
Northeast
178.5
155.7
­12.77
Midwest
265.8
347.3
30.66
South
536.2
746.0
39.13
West
395.7
391.9
­0.96
Total
1,376.1
1,640.9
19.24
Source:
BOC,
1999a,
2001
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
13
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
Year
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Annual
Housing
Starts
(thousands)

Northeast
Midwest
South
West
Figure
4­
3.
Annual
Housing
Starts
by
Region
4.2.3
NONRESIDENTIAL
BUILDING
CONSTRUCTION
GROUP
The
NAICS
Nonresidential
Building
Construction
group
comprises
establishments
classified
either
as
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction
or
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction.
The
following
buildings
are
considered
nonresidential
by
the
U.
S.
Census
Bureau
and
fall
under
either
the
manufacturing
or
the
commercial
classification:
manufacturing
and
light
industrial
buildings;
manufacturing
and
light
industrial
warehouses;
hotels
and
motels;
office
buildings;
all
other
commercial
buildings
not
elsewhere
classified,
such
as
stores,
restaurants,
and
automobile
service
stations;
commercial
warehouses;
religious
buildings;
educational
buildings;
health
care
and
institutional
buildings;
public
safety
buildings;
nonresidential
farm
buildings;
amusement,
social,
and
recreational
buildings;
and
all
other
nonresidential
buildings.
Because
of
the
transition
from
the
SIC
system
used
in
the
1992
Economic
Census
to
the
NAICS
for
the
1997
census,
a
valid
comparison
of
data
between
the
two
censuses
is
not
feasible,
and
therefore
no
historical
data
are
shown.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
14
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction.
This
industry
type
comprises
establishments
primarily
responsible
for
the
entire
construction
of
manufacturing
and
industrial
establishments,
such
as
plants,
mills,
and
factories.
Establishments
identified
as
management
firms
for
manufacturing
and
industrial
building
construction
are
also
part
of
this
industry.
They
include
manufacturing
and
industrial
building
general
contractors,
design
builders,
engineerconstructors
joint­
venture
contractors,
and
turnkey
contractors
(BOC,
1999e).

In
1997,
there
were
7,280
manufacturing
and
industrial
building
construction
establishments
with
payroll
(BOC,
1999e).
These
establishments
employed
143,066
people
for
a
total
payroll
of
more
than
$5.1
billion.
The
total
value
of
manufacturing
and
industrial
building
construction
work
in
1997
was
more
than
$33.5
billion
(BOC,
1999e).
The
value
of
construction
work
in
1997
by
construction
type
is
shown
in
Table
4­
8
and
includes
new
construction,
additions,
alterations
or
reconstruction,
maintenance
and
repair,
and
any
construction
work
done
by
the
reporting
establishments
for
themselves.

Table
4­
9
shows
the
value
U.
S.
of
construction
work
for
establishments
with
payroll
by
work
location.
States
are
grouped
into
four
geographic
regions:
Northeast,
Midwest,
South,
and
West.
The
South
and
the
Midwest
each
accounted
for
approximately
one­
third
of
total
1997
construction
value
(southern
region,
approximately
32.4
percent;
Midwest,
nearly
30.1
percent).
The
West
and
Northeast
made
up
the
remaining
third
(West,
23.4
percent;
Northeast,
11.1
percent).
Of
the
50
states,
California
had
the
highest
value
of
construction
work
at
$3.4
billion,
10.1
percent
of
the
total
for
the
entire
United
States.
Michigan
had
the
second­
highest
amount
at
$2.9
billion
(8.7
percent),
followed
by
Texas
at
$1.9
billion
(5.8
percent),
and
Ohio
at
$1.8
billion
(5.3
percent).
The
remaining
states
and
Washington,
D.
C.,
each
had
less
than
5
percent
of
the
total
value
of
manufacturing
and
industrial
building
construction
work
in
the
United
States
in
1997.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
15
Table
4­
8.
Value
of
Construction
Work
for
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction
Establishments
With
Payroll
by
Type
of
Construction,
1997
Type
of
Construction
Value
of
Construction
Work
(thousands
of
dollars)

Total
New
Construction
Additions,
Alterations,
or
Reconstruction
Maintenance
and
Repair
Manufacturing
and
Light
Industrial
Buildings
$17,590,062
$10,914,455
$4,280,143
$2,395,463
Manufacturing
and
Light
Industrial
Warehouses
7,058,148
5,
421,819
1,
358,864
277,466
Hotels
and
Motels
432,789
373,322
49,580
9,887
Office
Buildings
2,478,594
1,
570,275
810,808
97,511
All
Other
Commercial
Buildings,
Not
Elsewhere
Classified
1,141,600
799,522
298,166
43,912
Commercial
Warehouses
1,040,691
883,412
131,005
26,275
Educational
Buildings
823,028
541,081
255,540
26,407
Health
Care
and
Institutional
Buildings
862,907
464,788
355,116
43,003
All
Other
Nonresidential
Buildings
1,580,244
1,
073,758
436,029
70,457
Building
Construction,
Total
33,008,063
22,042,431
7,975,252
2,990,381
Nonbuilding
Construction,
Total
1
503,956
316,697
123,832
63,427
Construction
Work,
Not
Specified
by
Kind
2,324
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction,
Total
2
$33,514,342
$22,359,127
$8,099,084
$3,053,807
1.
This
information
is
shown
for
the
breakdown
of
total
industrial
building
construction
values.
2.
Detail
may
not
add
to
total
because
of
rounding.
Source:
BOC,
1999e.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
16
Table
4­
9.
Value
of
Manufacturing
and
Industrial
Building
Construction
Work
for
Establishments
with
Payroll
by
Location
of
Construction
Work,
1997
(thousands
of
dollars)

Northeast
Midwest
South
West
CT
$260,593
IL
$1,208,663
AL
$1,080,420
AK
$62,907
ME
170,314
IN
1,207,426
AR
182,142
AZ
561,785
MA
403,700
IA
381,922
DE
169,305
CA
3,440,637
NH
68,159
KS
281,419
DC
3,685
CO
330,551
NJ
755,854
MI
2,908,857
FL
920,179
HI
S
NY
920,425
MN
593,542
GA
1,090,761
ID
776,661
PA
1,114,271
MO
745,632
KY
861,206
MT
26,176
RI
D
NE
221,626
LA
521,420
NV
86,998
VT
14,812
1
ND
89,251
MD
253,778
NM
377,538
OH
1,772,426
MS
284,626
OR
895,078
SD
D
NC
921,364
UT
314,621
WI
669,575
OK
190,593
WA
915,678
SC
689,581
WY
52,326
TN
946,818
TX
1,934,909
VA
677,103
WV
144,481
Total:
$3,708,128
2
Total:
$10,080,339
2
Total:
$10,872,371
2
Total:
$7,840,956
2
Total
Value
of
Construction
for
United
States:
33,514,342
2
D:
Withheld
to
avoid
disclosing
data
of
individual
companies;
data
are
included
in
United
States
total.
S:
Withheld
because
estimates
did
not
meet
publication
standards.
1.
Sampling
error
exceeds
40
percent.
2.
Totals
for
regions
do
not
include
states
with
"S"
and
"D"
criteria.
Source:
BOC,
1999e.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
17
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction.
This
industry
type
comprises
establishments
primarily
responsible
for
the
entire
construction
of
commercial
and
institutional
buildings,
such
as
stores,
schools,
hospitals,
office
buildings,
and
public
warehouses
(BOC,
1999d).
Establishments
identified
as
management
firms
for
commercial
and
institutional
building
construction
are
also
part
of
this
industry
type,
which
includes
commercial
and
institutional
building
general
contractors,
design
builders,
engineer­
constructors,
joint­
venture
contractors,
and
turnkey
contractors
(BOC,
1999d).

In
1997,
there
were
37,430
commercial
and
institutional
building
construction
establishments
in
the
United
States
employing
a
total
of
528,173
people,
with
a
payroll
of
$19.2
billion
(BOC,
1999d).
The
value
of
construction
work
in
1997
by
construction
type
is
shown
in
Table
4­
10.
Value
includes
new
construction,
additions,
alterations
or
reconstruction,
maintenance
and
repair,
and
any
construction
work
done
by
the
reporting
establishments
for
themselves
(BOC,
1999d).

Table
4­
11
shows
the
value
of
commercial
and
institutional
building
construction
work
by
location.
The
data
are
reported
by
state,
by
region
(Northeast,
Midwest,
South,
and
West),
and
for
the
entire
United
States.
The
South
had
the
highest
dollar
value
of
construction
activity,
accounting
for
$47.9
billion
(27.7
percent)
of
commercial
and
institutional
building
construction
in
the
entire
U.
S.
The
West
accounted
for
20.6
percent
of
the
total,
followed
by
the
Midwest
at
16.8
percent,
and
then
the
Northeast
at
9.7
percent.
Of
the
50
states,
California
had
the
highest
value
of
commercial
and
institutional
construction
work
at
$18
billion,
or
10.4
percent
of
the
total
for
the
entire
United
States.
Texas
had
the
second
highest
value
of
construction
at
approximately
$13
billion
(7.5
percent),
followed
by
Illinois
at
$7.9
billion
(4.5
percent),
and
then
Georgia
at
$7.1
billion
(4.1
percent).
The
remaining
states
and
Washington,
D.
C.
each
accounted
for
less
than
4
percent
of
the
total
value
of
commercial
and
institutional
building
construction
work
in
the
United
States
in
1997.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
18
Table
4­
10.
Value
of
Construction
Work
for
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction
Establishments
With
Payroll
by
Type
of
Construction,
1997
Type
of
Construction
Value
of
Construction
Work
(thousands
of
dollars)

Total
New
Construction
Additions,
Alterations,
or
Reconstruction
Maintenance
and
Repair
Single­
Family
Houses,
Detached
and
Attached
$2,690,846
$1,473,065
$1,000,110
$217,672
Apartment
Buildings,
Apartment.­
Type
Condominiums
and
Cooperatives
4,081,493
2,905,159
1,016,097
160,237
Manufacturing
and
Light
Industrial
Buildings
8,083,739
5,201,932
2,425,390
456,417
Manufacturing
and
Light
Industrial
Warehouses
3,325,768
2,428,651
776,335
120,783
Hotels
and
Motels
8,313,559
6,433,138
1,679,856
200,564
Office
Buildings
36,147,979
21,235,715
13,524,406
1,387,858
All
Other
Commercial
Buildings,
Not
Elsewhere
Classified
32,715,012
21,866,915
9,631,103
1,216,994
Commercial
Warehouses
6,929,460
5,465,600
1,215,709
248,151
Religious
Buildings
4,324,007
2,870,724
1,342,559
110,724
Educational
Buildings
23,974,844
15,587,110
7,893,507
494,227
Health
Care
&
Institutional
Buildings
17,446,710
11,187,636
5,917,408
361,666
Public
Safety
Buildings
5,345,602
4,183,179
1,064,693
97,730
Farm
Buildings,
Nonresidential
1,904,128
1,508,380
272,836
122,912
Amusement,
Social,
and
Recreational
Buildings
6,529,907
5,141,460
1,275,033
113,414
Other
Building
Construction
3,429,673
1,984,749
895,522
549,401
Building
Construction,
Total
166,818,246
110,618,170
50,325,006
5,875,070
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
Type
of
Construction
Value
of
Construction
Work
(thousands
of
dollars)

Total
New
Construction
Additions,
Alterations,
or
Reconstruction
Maintenance
and
Repair
June
2002
4­
19
Nonbuilding
Construction
1
4,091,548
2,697,377
1,205,513
188,658
Construction
Work,
Not
Specified
by
Kind
2,295,888
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Not
Applicable
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction,
Total
2
$173,205,680
$113,315,547
$51,530,519
$6,063,728
1.
This
information
is
shown
for
the
breakdown
of
total
industrial
building
construction
values.
2.
Detail
may
not
add
to
total
because
of
rounding.
Source:
BOC,
1999d.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
20
Table
4­
11.
Value
of
Commercial
and
Institutional
Building
Construction
Work
for
Establishments
With
Payroll
by
Location
of
Construction
Work,
1997
(thousands
of
dollars)

Northeast
Midwest
South
West
CT
D
IL
7,
860,551
AL
D
AK
509,429
ME
385,818
IN
3,132,116
AR
D
AZ
3,287,644
MA
4,518,815
IA
1,
610,654
DE
891,394
CA
18,093,906
NH
697,186
KS
1,609,747
DC
1,724,839
CO
3,728,688
NJ
4,973,021
MI
4,
791,024
FL
D
HI
D
NY
D
MN
3,
361,074
GA
7,134,326
ID
D
PA
5,966,516
MO
D
KY
1,961,212
MT
342,606
RI
D
NE
895,824
LA
1,855,800
NV
D
VT
303,481
ND
297,619
MD
3,693,531
NM
913,252
OH
5,620,984
MS
D
OR
2,599,182
SD
D
NC
5,949,386
UT
1,796,639
WI
D
OK
D
WA
4,155,050
SC
2,417,316
WY
211,989
TN
3,751,331
TX
12,953,464
VA
5,076,575
WV
529,092
Total:
$16,844,837
1
Total:
$29,179,593
1
Total:
$47,938,266
1
Total:
$35,638,385
1
Total
Value
of
Construction
for
United
States:
$173,205,680
2
D:
Withheld
to
avoid
disclosing
data
of
individual
companies;
data
are
included
in
United
States
total.
1.
Totals
for
regions
do
not
include
states
with
"D"
criteria.
2.
Detail
may
not
add
to
total
because
of
rounding,
and
because
of
"D"
criteria.
Source:
BOC,
1999d.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
21
4.2.4
HEAVY
CONSTRUCTION
SUBSECTOR
Industry
Overview.
The
heavy
construction
industry
encompasses
broad
types
of
activities
with
highway
and
street
construction;
bridge
and
tunnel
construction;
and
water,
sewer,
and
pipeline
construction
as
the
three
main
types
of
heavy
construction.
The
U.
S.
Census
Bureau
administers
a
separate
economic
census
for
each
of
these
three
types
of
construction
activities.

In
general,
most
of
the
heavy
construction
industry
indicators
(e.
g.,
value
of
completed
work;
employment)
have
increased
over
the
past
two
decades,
although
the
health
of
the
industry,
like
that
of
the
housing
subsector,
is
closely
tied
to
the
overall
state
of
the
U.
S.
economy.
This
subsector
has
experienced
both
upturns
and
downturns
over
the
past
20­
year
period.

The
period
encompassing
the
two
most
recent
census
years,
1992
and
1997,
saw
modest
growth
in
the
heavy
construction
subsector.
By
1997,
the
value
of
construction
completed
by
the
three
main
types
of
heavy
construction
reached
about
$80
billion.
As
shown
in
Table
4­
12,
the
highway
construction
category
of
the
heavy
construction
subsector
accounted
for
about
60
percent
of
the
total
value
of
heavy
construction.
Highway
construction
employed
the
majority
of
workers
in
the
heavy
construction
subsector,
accounting
for
about
278,000
of
a
total
of
488,000
employees
for
all
three
categories
of
heavy
contruction
(BOC,
1999g).
Of
the
three
heavy
construction
categories,
only
the
water,
sewer,
and
pipeline
category
has
experienced
a
decline
in
number
of
establishments
and
number
of
employees.

Regional
Distribution
of
Heavy
Construction
Activities.
The
U.
S.
Bureau
of
Census
reports
data
for
the
heavy
construction
industries
at
the
state
and
regional
levels.
As
in
the
case
of
the
housing
subsector,
the
Census
Bureau
divides
the
United
States
into
four
major
regions,
Northeast,
Midwest,
South,
and
West,
each
contributing
to
the
total
value
of
construction
work.
As
shown
in
Figure
4­
4,
the
South
and
Midwest
accounted
for
the
majority
of
the
establishments
and
value
of
heavy
construction
work
in
1997.
In
particular,
these
two
regions
accounted
for
55
percent
of
the
construction
firms
and
61
percent
of
the
value
of
construction.

Of
the
three
major
types
of
heavy
construction
activities,
highway
and
street
construction
accounted
for
almost
60
percent
of
the
total
value
of
heavy
construction
activities
in
1997.
The
distribution
of
highway
construction
establishments
and
the
value
of
completed
work
among
the
different
regions
of
the
country
are
similar
to
those
of
the
other
heavy
construction
categories
For
example,
the
South
contributed
more
than
$16
billion,
or
34
percent,
to
the
total
value
of
highway
construction
work
in
the
United
States.
It
should
be
reiterated,
however,
that
the
census
provides
only
a
snapshot
and
that
construction
activities
such
as
highway
construction
are
dependent
on
government
funding
and
can
change
significantly
in
magnitude
and
location
over
time.
Development
Document
for
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June
2002
4­
22
Table
4­
12.
Overview
of
Heavy
Construction
Industry,
1992
and
1997
Year
Highway
Bridges
Water,
Sewer,
and
Pipeline
Value
of
Construction
(thousands
of
dollars)

1992
35,331,607
7,198,275
20,205,048
1997
48,472,284
9,539,041
22,204,058
Number
of
Establishments
1992
10,090
1,041
10,233
1997
11,270
1,177
8,042
Number
of
Employees
1
1992
257,356
43,701
194,252
1997
277,979
47,764
162,566
1.
Number
of
employees
is
the
sum
of
all
employees
during
the
pay
periods
that
include
the
12th
of
March,
May,
August,
and
November,
divided
by
four.
Source:
BOC,
1992a,
1992b,
1992c,
1999f,
1999g,
1999h.
Development
Document
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June
2002
4­
23
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Nor
t
heas
t
Midwes
t
Sout
h
West
Tot
al
Regi
on
Value
of
Work
(billions)

Hi
ghway
Br
i
dge
s
Wat
e
r
,
Se
wer,
and
Pipeline
Figure
4­
4.
Value
of
Heavy
Construction
Work
by
Region,
1997
4.3
INDUSTRY
PRACTICES
AND
TRENDS
4.3.1
OVERVIEW
OF
CONSTRUCTION
LAND­
DISTURBING
ACTIVITIES
Constructing
a
building
or
facility
involves
a
variety
of
activities,
including
the
use
of
equipment
that
alters
the
site's
environmental
conditions.
These
changes
include
vegetation
and
top
soil
removal,
regrading,
and
drainage
pattern
alteration.
The
following
provides
a
brief
description
of
typical
land­
disturbing
activities
at
construction
sites
and
the
types
of
equipment
employed.

Construction
Site
Preparation.
Construction
activities
generally
begin
with
the
planning
and
engineering
of
the
site
and
site
preparation.
During
this
stage,
mobile
offices,
which
are
usually
housed
in
trailers,
are
established
on
the
construction
site.
The
construction
company
uses
these
temporary
structures
to
handle
vital
activities
such
as
preparing
and
submitting
applicable
permits,
hiring
employees
and
subcontractors,
and
ensuring
that
proper
environmental
requirements
are
met.
The
entire
construction
yard
is
delineated
with
erosion
and
sediment
controls
installed
and
security
measures
established.
The
latter
includes
installing
fences
and
signs
to
warn
against
trespassing
and
to
mark
dangerous
areas.
After
the
site
is
secured,
equipment
is
brought
to
the
site
(and
is
stored
there
throughout
the
construction
period).
Development
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for
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Guidelines
June
2002
4­
24
Clearing,
Excavating,
and
Grading.
Construction
on
any
size
parcel
of
land
almost
always
calls
for
a
remodeling
of
the
earth
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).
Therefore,
actual
site
construction
begins
with
site
clearing
and
grading.
Organic
material
cannot
support
the
weight
of
buildings
and
should
be
removed
from
the
top
layer
of
ground.
(Some
developers
stockpile
the
organic
material
for
use
during
the
landscaping
phase
of
construction
rather
than
paying
for
it
to
be
hauled
from
the
site.)
Construction
contractors
are
to
ensure
that
earthwork
activities
meet
local,
State,
and
Federal
regulations
for
soil
and
erosion
control,
runoff,
and
other
environmental
controls.
The
size
of
the
site,
extent
of
water
present,
soil
types,
topography,
and
weather
determine
the
kinds
of
equipment
used
in
site
clearing
and
grading
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Material
that
will
not
be
used
on
the
site
should
be
hauled
away
by
tractor­
pulled
wagons,
dump
trucks,
or
articulated
trucks
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Equipment
used
for
lifting
excavated
and
cleared
materials
include
aerial­
work
platforms,
forwarders,
cranes,
rough­
terrain
forklifts,
and
truck­
mounted
cranes.
In
addition,
track
loaders
are
used
for
digging
and
dumping
earth
(Caterpillar,
2000;
Construction
Equipment
On­
Line,
1996­
1998;
Lynch
and
Hack,
1984;
and
Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Excavation
and
grading
are
performed
by
several
different
types
of
machines.
These
tasks
can
also
be
done
by
hand,
but
this
is
generally
more
expensive
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).
When
grading
a
site,
builders
typically
ensure
that
new
grades
are
as
close
to
the
original
as
possible,
to
avoid
erosion
and
storm
water
runoff
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).
Proper
grading
also
ensures
a
flat
surface
for
development
and
drains
water
away
from
constructed
buildings.

Excavation
and
grading
equipment
includes
backhoes,
bulldozers
(including
the
versatile
tracked
bulldozer),
loaders,
directional
drilling
rigs,
hydraulic
excavators,
motor
graders,
scrapers,
skid­
steer
loaders,
soil
stabilizers,
tool
carriers,
trenchers,
wheel
loaders,
and
pipeliners.
Equipment
selection
depends
on
functions
to
be
performed
and
specific
site
conditions
(Caterpillar,
2000;
Construction
Equipment
On­
Line,
1996­
1998;
Lynch
and
Hack,
1984;
and
Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Therefore,
multiple
types
of
equipment
are
used
throughout
the
clearing
and
grading
process.

Self­
transporting
trenching
machines,
wheel­
type
trenching
machines,
and
ladder­
type
trenching
machines
are
also
used
during
site
excavation.
Self­
transporting
trenching
machines
are
used
to
create
shallow
trenches,
such
as
for
underground
wire
and
cables.
This
type
of
machine
has
a
bulldozer
blade
attached
to
the
front,
is
highly
maneuverable,
and
can
be
used
to
dig
narrow,
shallow
trenches.
Wheel­
type
trenching
machines
also
dig
narrow
trenches,
most
often
for
water
mains
and
gas
and
oil
pipelines.
Ladder­
type
trenching
machines
are
used
to
dig
deep
trenches,
such
as
for
sewer
pipes.
These
machines
might
have
a
boom
mounted
at
the
rear.
Along
the
boom
are
cutter
teeth
and
buckets
that
are
attached
to
chains.
As
the
machine
moves,
it
digs
dirt
and
moves
it
to
the
sides
of
the
newly
formed
trench
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Development
Document
for
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Development
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June
2002
4­
25
Power
shovels
can
also
be
used
for
excavating
soils.
They
are
used
on
all
classes
of
earth
that
have
not
been
loosened.
For
solid
rock,
prior
loosening
is
often
necessary.
As
materials
are
excavated,
they
are
immediately
loaded
onto
trucks
or
tractor­
pulled
wagons
and
hauled
from
the
site
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Hydraulic
excavators,
with
either
a
front
or
a
back
shovel,
are
also
used
to
dig
into
the
earth
and
to
load
a
hauling
vehicle.
There
are
several
categories
of
hydraulic
excavators,
including
backhoes,
back
shovels,
hoes,
and
pull
shovels.
Hydraulic
excavators
are
one
of
the
most
widely
used
types
of
excavating
equipment
because
of
their
ease
of
use
and
their
ability
to
remove
the
earth
that
caves
as
it
is
moved.
They
are
effective
excavating
machines,
and
they
are
easy
to
use
in
terms
of
loading
some
sort
of
hauling
vehicle
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Draglines,
used
to
dig
ditches
or
build
levees,
can
transport
soil
within
casting
limits,
thus
eliminating
the
need
for
hauling
equipment
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Draglines
have
a
bucket
that
hangs
from
a
cable.
The
bucket
is
brought
through
the
dirt
and
toward
the
operator
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).
Draglines
can
be
used
on
both
wet
and
dry
ground
and
can
dig
earth
out
of
pits
that
contain
water
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
They
are
most
useful
for
making
large
cuts
and
channels
below
the
level
of
the
machine
as
well
as
for
making
valleys,
mounds,
slopes,
and
banks
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).
Draglines
have
a
lower
output
than
power
shovels,
and
do
not
excavate
rock
as
well
as
power
shovels
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Draglines
can
be
converted
to
clamshells
by
replacing
the
dragline
bucket
with
a
clamshell
bucket.
A
clamshell
is
typically
used
for
handling
sand,
gravel,
crushed
stone,
sandy
loam,
and
other
loose
materials;
it
is
not
efficient
in
handling
compacted
earth,
clay,
or
other
dense
materials.
A
clamshell
is
lowered
into
a
material,
and
the
bucket
closes
on
the
material.
It
is
then
raised
over
a
hauling
vehicle
and
the
materials
deposited
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Scrapers,
either
self­
powered
or
drawn
by
tractors,
dig
and
compact
materials
by
taking
up
earth
from
its
underside
with
toothed
scoops
and
loading
it
into
hauling
vehicles.
Scrapers
are
useful
in
removing
earth
and
weak
or
broken
rock,
and
for
excavating
hills
and
rock
faces.
Some
scrapers
are
designed
for
long
hauls;
others
with
good
traction
are
used
on
steep
slopes
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).

A
crawler
tractor,
which
pulls
a
rubber­
tired
self­
loading
scraper,
is
often
used
for
short­
haul
distances.
The
crawler
tractor
uses
a
drawbar
pull
to
load
the
scraper.
It
has
good
traction
and
can
operate
on
muddy
roads.
It
is,
however,
a
slower
vehicle
and
thus
is
more
appropriate
for
shorter
hauls.

Wheel­
type
tractor­
pulled
scrapers,
which
come
in
two­
and
four­
wheel
tractors,
are
used
for
longer
hauling
distances.
Unlike
the
crawler
tractor­
pulled
scrapers,
the
wheel­
type
tractorpulled
scrapers
do
not
maintain
good
traction.
Under
such
conditions,
a
helper
tractor,
such
as
a
bulldozer,
might
be
used
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
26
All
these
machines
shape
and
compact
the
earth,
a
crucial
site
preparation
step.
In
addition,
earthwork
activities
might
suggest
that
fill
be
brought
in.
In
such
cases,
the
fill
should
be
spread
in
uniform,
thick
layers
and
compacted
to
a
specified
density
with
an
optimum
moisture
content.
Graders
and
bulldozers
are
the
most
common
earth­
spreading
machines.
Machines
that
compact
include
tractor­
pulled
sheep's
foot
rollers,
smooth­
wheel
rollers,
pneumatic
rollers,
and
vibrating
rollers,
among
other
equipment
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).
Rollers
and
scarifiers
are
used
either
to
compact
or
to
break
up
the
ground
(Lynch
and
Hack,
1984).

In
order
to
remove
rock,
it
should
first
be
loosened
and
broken
up,
usually
through
drilling
or
blasting.
Drilling
equipment
includes
jackhammers,
wagon
drills,
drifters,
churn
rills,
and
rotary
drills;
each
is
designed
to
work
on
a
specific
size
and
type
of
rock.
Dynamite
and
other
explosives
are
used
to
loosen
rock
(Peurifoy
and
Oberlender,
1989).

Once
materials
have
been
excavated
and
removed
and
ground
cleared
and
graded,
the
site
is
ready
for
construction.

4.3.2
CONSTRUCTION
SITE
SIZE
CATEGORIES
AND
ESTIMATES
OF
AMOUNT
OF
DISTURBED
LAND
The
proposed
effluent
guidelines
would
apply
to
construction
sites
of
all
types
(i.
e.,
residential,
commercial,
and
industrial)
of
more
than
one
acre
(5
acres,
in
the
case
of
the
guideline's
Option
2).
Because
the
costs
of
best
management
practices
(BMPs)
for
erosion
and
sediment
control
are
largely
driven
by
site
size,
EPA
estimated
the
distribution
of
construction
sites
by
size
category,
land
use
type,
and
geographic
region
in
order
to
estimate
the
total
cost
of
the
proposed
rule.
(In
addition,
estimating
distribution
of
sites
by
type
allows
EPA
to
estimate
the
cost
to
each
construction
sector.)

The
method
used
to
estimate
the
number
of
construction
sites
by
size
category,
and
therefore
the
total
area
disturbed,
is
based
on
a
number
of
data
sources,
including
U.
S.
Census
data
and
data
collected
during
the
Phase
II
Storm
Water
rulemaking.

4.3.2.1
National
Estimates
of
Disturbed
Acreage
EPA
used
the
U.
S.
Department
of
Agriculture's
(USDA's)
1997
National
Resources
Inventory
(NRI)
to
estimate
the
level
of
new
U.
S.
development
each
year.
(NRI
is
designed
to
track
changes
in
land
cover
and
land
use
over
time.)
The
inventory,
conducted
every
five
years,
covers
all
non­
federal
lands
in
the
U.
S.
(75
percent
of
the
U.
S.
total).
The
program
captures
land
use
data
from
some
800,000
statistically
selected
locations.
From
1992
to
1997,
an
average
of
2.2
million
acres
per
year
were
converted
from
non­
developed
to
developed
status.
Table
4­
13
shows
the
allocation
of
this
converted
land
area
by
type
of
land
or
land
cover.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
27
Table
4­
13.
Acres
Converted
from
Undeveloped
to
Developed
State
a
,
1992­
1997
Type
of
Land
Acres
Converted
to
Development
1992­
1997
(thousands)
Annual
Average
Percent
Contribution
by
Type
of
Land
Cropland
574.8
26.6%

Conservation
Reserve
Program
land
1.5
0.1%

Pastureland
391.2
17.4%

Rangeland
245.9
11.0%

Forest
land
939.0
41.9%

Other
rural
area
89.1
4.0%

Water
areas
and
federal
land
1.8
0.1%

Total
2,243.4
100.0%

a.
NRI
defines
developed
land
as
a
combination
of
the
following
land
cover/
use
categories
large
urban
and
built­
up
areas,
small
built­
up
areas,
and
rural
transportation
land.
These
are
defined
as
follows:
Large
urban
and
built­
up
areas.
A
land
cover/
use
category
composed
of
developed
tracts
of
at
least
10
acres
and
meeting
the
definition
of
urban
and
built­
up
areas.
Small
built­
up
areas.
A
land
cover/
use
category
consisting
of
developed
land
units
of
0.25
to
10
acres,
which
meet
the
definition
of
urban
and
built­
up
areas.
Rural
transportation
land.
A
land
cover/
use
category
which
consists
of
all
highways,
roads,
railroads
and
associated
right­
of­
ways
outside
urban
and
built­
up
areas;
also
includes
private
roads
to
farmsteads
or
ranch
headquarters,
logging
roads,
and
other
private
roads
(field
lanes
are
not
included).
Urban
and
built
up
areas
are
in
turn
defined
as:
Urban
and
built­
up
areas.
A
land
cover/
use
category
consisting
of
residential,
industrial,
commercial,
and
institutional
land;
construction
sites;
public
administrative
sites;
railroad
yards;
cemeteries;
airports;
golf
courses;
sanitary
landfills;
sewage
treatment
plants;
water
control
structures
and
spillways;
other
land
used
for
such
purposes;
small
parks
(less
than
10
acres)
within
urban
and
built­
up
areas;
and
highways,
railroads
,
and
other
transportation
facilities
if
they
are
surrounded
by
urban
areas.
Also
included
are
tracts
of
less
than
10
acres
that
do
not
meet
the
above
definition
but
are
completely
surrounded
by
Urban
and
built­
up
land.
Two
size
categories
are
recognized
in
the
NRI:
areas
of
0.25
acre
to
10
acres,
and
areas
of
at
least
10
acres.
Source:
USDA,
2000.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
28
4.3.2.2
Distribution
of
Acreage
by
Project
Type
To
allocate
the
NRI
acreage
among
the
various
segments
of
the
industry,
EPA
has
estimated
the
distribution
of
acres
developed
by
type
of
project
in
the
following
way.
First,
EPA
multiplied
the
number
of
building
permits
issued
annually
by
estimates
of
the
average
site
size
for
each
project
type.
Thus
for
single­
family
residential
construction,
EPA
multiplied
the
number
of
new
single­
family
home
building
permits
by
the
average
lot
size
for
new
single­
family
construction.
Estimates
for
other
types
of
construction
were
based
on
extrapolations
from
the
U.
S.
Census
permit
data
and
EPA
estimates
of
average
project
size.
Second,
EPA
adjusted
the
estimates
of
acres
converted
to
reconcile
any
differences
between
the
total
number
of
acres
accounted
for
using
this
approach
and
the
total
acres
developed
as
estimated
in
the
NRI.

Single­
family
Residential
Census
data
indicate
that
in
recent
years
the
number
of
new
single­
family
housing
units
authorized
has
averaged
just
over
1.0
million
units
per
year
(see
Table
4­
14).
The
average
lot
size
for
new
single­
family
housing
units
is
13,553
square
feet,
or
0.31
acres
(1
acre
=
43,560
square
feet).
Using
the
average
lot
size
(see
Table
4­
15),
however,
will
underestimate
the
total
acreage
converted
for
single­
family
residential
projects
because
it
does
not
include
common
areas
of
developments
not
counted
as
part
of
an
owner's
lot.
These
areas
include
streets,
sidewalks,
parking
areas,
storm
water
management
structures,
and
open
spaces.

Table
4­
14.
New
Single­
Family
and
Multifamily
Housing
Units
Authorized,
1995­
1997
Year
All
Housing
Units
Single­
Family
Housing
Units
Multifamily
Housing
Units
1995
1,332,549
997,268
335,281
1996
1,425,616
1,069,472
356,144
1997
1,441,136
1,062,396
378,740
1995­
1997
avg
1,399,767
1,043,045
356,722
Source:
BOC,
2000b.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
6
The
communities
were:
Austin,
TX;
Baltimore
County,
MD;
Cary,
NC;
Ft.
Collins,
CO;
Lacey,
WA;
Loudoun
County,
VA;
New
Britain,
CT;
Olympia,
WA;
Prince
George's
County,
MD;
Raleigh,
NC;
South
Bend,
IN;
Tallahassee,
FL;
Tuscon,
AZ;
and
Waukesha,
WI.

June
2002
4­
29
Table
4­
15.
Average
and
Median
Lot
Size
for
New
Single­
Family
Housing
Units
Sold,
1995­
1997
Year
Average
Lot
Size
(Square
Feet)
Median
Lot
Size
(Square
Feet)

1995
13,665
9,375
1996
13,705
9,100
1997
13,290
9,000
1995­
1997
avg
13,553
9,158
Source:
BOC,
1995,
1996,
1997.

To
account
for
these
differences,
EPA
examined
data
obtained
from
a
survey
of
municipalities
conducted
in
support
of
the
Phase
II
Storm
Water
rule
(EPA
1999).
This
survey
identified
14
communities
that
consistently
collected
project
type
and
size
data
as
part
of
their
construction
permitting
programs.
6
EPA's
review
of
permitting
data
from
these
communities
covered
852
single­
family
developments
encompassing
18,134
housing
units.
The
combined
area
of
these
developments
was
11,460
acres.
This
means
that
each
housing
unit
accounted
for
0.63
acres
(11,460
acres
÷
18,134
units
=
0.63
acres
per
unit).
This
estimate,
essentially
double
the
average
lot
size,
appears
to
more
than
account
for
the
common
areas
and
undeveloped
areas
in
a
typical
single­
family
residential
development.
For
this
reason,
EPA
averaged
the
Census
estimate
of
the
national
average
lot
size
(0.31
acres)
and
the
Phase
II
estimate
of
0.63
acres
per
unit
to
arrive
at
an
estimate
of
0.47
acres
per
unit.
This
number
was
multiplied
by
the
average
number
of
singlefamily
housing
units
authorized
by
building
permit,
1.04
million,
to
arrive
at
an
estimate
of
490,231
acres
(see
Table
4­
18).

Multifamily
Residential
For
residential
construction
other
than
single­
family
housing,
EPA
divided
the
average
number
of
units
authorized
during
1995­
1997
(356,722,
from
Table
4­
14)
by
the
average
number
of
units
per
new
multifamily
building.
The
average
number
of
units
per
building
was
obtained
by
examining
the
distribution
of
units
by
unit
size
class
in
Census
data
(BOC
2000b).
EPA
estimated
the
number
of
buildings
in
each
size
class
by
dividing
the
number
of
units
in
each
class
by
the
average
number
of
units.
The
total
number
of
units
was
then
divided
into
the
estimated
number
of
buildings
to
arrive
at
an
average
number
of
approximately
10
units
per
building
across
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
30
all
building
size
classes.
Dividing
356,722
units
authorized
(Table
4­
14)
by
10
units
per
building
project
yields
35,672
individual
development
projects.

EPA
next
examined
data
on
the
average
site
size
for
multifamily
residential
developments.
The
Center
for
Watershed
Protection
reports
survey
results
showing
that
an
average
building
footprint
occupies
15.6
percent
of
the
total
site
(CWP
2001).
EPA
assumed
that
the
average­
sized
multifamily
building
(10.8
units)
would
have
two
floors
and
that
each
unit
would
occupy
the
national
average
of
1,095
square
feet
(NAHB
2002).
The
total
square
footage
accounted
for
by
living
space
is
thus
11,826
square
feet.
Multiplying
by
a
factor
of
1.2
to
account
for
common
areas
and
other
non­
living
space
(utility
rooms,
hallways,
stairways),
and
dividing
by
2
to
reflect
the
assumption
of
a
2­
story
structure,
EPA
obtained
a
typical
building
footprint
of
7,096
square
feet
(11,826
x
1.2
÷
2
=
7,096).
Combining
this
with
the
CWP
estimate
of
the
building
footprint
share
of
total
site
size
(15.6
percent),
the
average
site
size
was
estimated
to
be
45,487
square
feet
(7,096
÷
0.156
=
45,487),
or
just
over
1
acre
(1.04
acres).

EPA
compared
the
average
site
size
obtained
using
this
approach
with
data
from
the
14
community
survey
referenced
above
under
the
Phase
II
Storm
Water
rule.
That
study's
review
of
permitting
data
identified
286
multifamily
developments
covering
a
total
of
3,476
acres.
The
average
site
size,
12.1
acres,
is
considerably
higher
than
that
calculated
above.
EPA
has
no
indication
that
the
permits
reviewed
in
these
communities
are
for
projects
of
a
larger­
thanaverage
size.
Therefore,
for
purposes
of
this
analysis,
EPA
has
taken
the
midpoint
of
the
estimates,
6.5
acres,
as
the
average
size
of
multifamily
projects.
This
number
was
multiplied
by
the
average
number
of
multifamily
housing
developments
authorized
by
building
permit,
35,672,
to
arrive
at
an
estimate
of
231,868
acres
(see
Table
4­
18).

Nonresidential
Construction
EPA
lacked
current
data
on
the
number
of
nonresidential
construction
and
development
projects
authorized
annually
because
the
Census
Bureau
ceased
to
collect
data
on
the
number
of
permits
issued
for
such
projects
in
1995.
EPA
used
regression
analysis
to
forecast
the
number
of
nonresidential
building
permits
issued
in
1997,
based
on
the
historical
relationship
between
residential
and
nonresidential
construction
activity.
Using
this
approach,
EPA
estimates
that
a
total
of
426,024
nonresidential
permits
were
issued
in
1997.
These
represent
a
variety
of
project
types,
including
commercial
and
industrial,
institutional,
recreational,
as
well
as
nonresidential,
nonbuilding
projects
such
as
parks
and
road
or
highway
projects.

EPA
first
combined
a
number
of
project
types
into
a
larger
"commercial"
category,
which
included
hotels
and
motels
and
retail
and
office
projects,
as
well
as
religious,
public
works,
and
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
7
The
commercial
category
included:
hotels/
motels,
amusement,
religious,
parking
garages,
service
stations,
hospitals,
offices,
public
works,
educational,
stores,
and
other
nonresidential
buildings.

June
2002
4­
31
educational
projects.
7
EPA's
reasoning
for
including
the
latter
categories
under
the
commercial
category
is
based
on
engineering
judgment
that
erosion
and
sediment
control
practices
would
be
similar
across
each
project
type.
The
total
estimated
number
of
commercial
permits
in
1997
was
254,566
(59.7
percent
of
the
nonresidential
total).
(EPA
calculated
a
estimate
for
the
industrial
category,
which
totaled
12,140
permits
(2.8
percent),
separately.)
The
residual
159,318
permits
(37.4
percent),
are
nonbuilding,
nonresidential
projects
that
include
parks,
bridges,
roads,
and
highways.
EPA
accounts
for
these
projects
in
the
steps
described
below.

For
the
industrial
and
commercial
categories,
EPA
reviewed
the
project
size
data
collected
from
the
14­
community
Phase
II
rule
survey
referenced
earlier
(EPA,
1999).
This
study
identified
817
commercial
sites
occupying
5,514
acres
and
115
industrial
sites
occupying
689
acres.
The
average
site
sizes
are
6.7
and
6.0
acres,
respectively.

EPA
also
reviewed
estimates
from
CWP
(2001)
on
the
average
percent
of
commercial
and
industrial
sites
taken
up
by
the
building
footprint.
These
percentages,
19.1
and
19.6
respectively,
were
multiplied
across
the
model
project
site
sizes
of
1,
3,
7.5,
25,
70,
and
200
acres
to
estimate
building
size
on
each
site,
assuming
single­
story
buildings
in
each
case.
These
estimates
are
shown
in
Table
4­
16.

Table
4­
16.
Average
Building
Area
(square
feet)

Project
Size
(Acres)
Commercial
Industrial
1
8,320
8,555
3
24,960
25,666
7.5
62,400
64,164
25
207,999
213,880
70
582,397
598,863
200
1,663,992
1,711,037
Estimates
were
obtained
by
multiplying
the
site
size
in
square
feet
by
the
percentage
of
the
site
estimated
to
be
occupied
by
the
building
"footprint,"
based
on
data
from
CWP
(2001).

As
seen
in
the
table,
the
average
building
size
corresponding
to
the
6­
to7­
acre
sites
estimated
from
the
14­
community
study
are
in
the
60,000
square
feet
range.
EPA
next
examined
R.
S.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
32
Means'
Building
Construction
Cost
Data
(2000),
which
provides
cost
data
for
"typical"
commercial
and
industrial
buildings.
As
part
of
the
cost
data,
R.
S.
Means
identifies
the
typical
range
of
building
sizes
based
on
a
database
of
actual
projects.
Table
4­
17
shows
the
typical
size
and
size
range
for
a
variety
of
building
types
that
would
fall
into
either
the
commercial
or
industrial
category.
While
some
of
the
building
types
correspond
with
the
estimated
average
of
60,000
square
feet,
these
appear
high
for
other
categories,
such
as
low­
rise
office
and
supermarkets,
warehouses,
and
elementary
schools.
EPA
believes
generally
that
there
are
more
small
projects
than
large
ones.
As
a
result,
EPA
inferred
that
this
approach
would
suggest
an
average
building
size
of
25,000
square
feet,
which
implies
an
average
site
size
of
3
acres,
based
on
Table
4­
16.

To
reconcile
the
estimates
obtained
from
the
two
approaches,
EPA
has
taken
the
midpoint
of
the
estimates.
For
commercial
development,
EPA
assumes
an
average
site
size
of
4.85
acres
(the
average
of
6.7
and
3.0
acres)
and
for
industrial
development
EPA
assumes
an
average
site
size
of
4.5
acres
(the
average
of
6.0
and
3.0
acres).

Table
4­
17.
Typical
Building
Sizes
and
Size
Ranges
by
Type
of
Building
Building
Category/
Type
Typical
Size
(Gross
Square
Feet)
Typical
Range
(Gross
Square
Feet)

Low
High
Commercial
­
Supermarkets
20,000
12,000
30,000
Commercial
­
Department
Store
90,000
44,000
122,000
Commercial
­
Low­
Rise
Office
8,600
4,700
19,000
Commercial
­
Mid­
Rise
Office
52,000
31,300
83,100
Commercial
­
Elementary
a
41,000
24,500
55,000
Industrial
­
Warehouse
25,000
8,000
72,000
a.
For
purposes
of
this
analysis
EPA
combines
a
number
of
building
types,
including
educational,
under
the
commercial
category.
Source:
R.
S.
Means,
2000.

The
resulting
average
project
sizes
were
then
multiplied
by
the
estimated
number
of
commercial
and
industrial
permits
to
obtain
an
estimate
of
the
total
acreage
developed
(and
thus
land
acreage
disturbed)
for
these
project
categories.
Table
4­
18
shows
the
results
of
this
"bottom­
up"
approach
to
estimating
the
number
of
acres
of
land
developed.
The
overall
estimate
of
the
amount
of
land
developed
is
2.01
million
acres
per
year.
Residential
single­
family
development
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
33
accounts
for
24.4
percent
of
the
total,
multifamily
development
for
11.5
percent
of
the
total,
commercial
for
61.4
percent,
and
industrial
for
2.7
percent.

Table
4­
18.
National
Estimates
of
Land
Area
Developed
Per
Year,
Based
on
Building
Permit
Data
Type
of
Construction
Permits
Average
Site
Size
a
Acres
Disturbed
Number
Pct.
of
Total
Number
Pct.
of
total
Residential
Single­
family
1,043,045
77.5%
0.47
490,231
24.4%

Multifamily
35,672
2.7%
6.5
231,868
11.5%

Nonresidential
Commercial
b
254,566
18.9%
4.9
1,234,645
61.4%

Industrial
12,140
0.9%
4.5
54,630
2.7%

Total
1,345,423
100.0%
­­
2,011,374
100.0%

a.
For
single­
family
residential,
this
is
the
average
of
the
average
lot
size
for
new
construction
in
1999
(BOC,
2000b)
and
the
average
obtained
in
EPA
(1999).
For
all
other
categories,
the
site
sizes
are
EPA
assumptions
based
on
representative
project
profiles
contained
in
R.
S.
Means
(2000)
and
the
14­
community
survey
conducted
in
support
of
the
Phase
II
NPDES
storm
water
rule
(EPA,
1999).
b.
A
number
of
project
types
were
grouped
together
to
form
the
"commercial"
category,
including:
hotels/
motels,
amusement,
religious,
parking
garages,
service
stations,
hospitals,
offices,
public
works,
educational,
stores,
other
nonresidential
buildings.

The
estimate
of
2.01
million
acres
(Table
4­
18)
of
annual
construction
is
close
to
the
estimated
2.24
million
acres
of
annual
new
urban
land
obtained
from
1997
NRI.
Areas
not
accounted
for
in
EPA's
estimates
include
those
converted
as
a
result
of
road,
highway,
bridge,
park,
monument,
and
other
non­
building
construction
projects.
EPA
has
not
developed
engineering
costs
applicable
to
these
types
of
projects,
but
assumes
that
the
builders
and
developers
of
these
areas
will
face
similar
compliance
costs
per
acre
to
the
residential,
commercial
and
industrial
sectors,
and
therefore,
the
acreage
should
be
included
in
EPA's
analysis.
For
the
purpose
of
developing
national
compliance
costs,
therefore,
EPA
has
allocated
the
entire
annual
new
urban
acreage
from
the
1997
NRI
into
the
four
land
use
categories
using
the
distribution
shown
in
the
final
column
of
Table
4­
18.
The
third
column
in
Table
4­
19
summarizes
the
results
of
this
allocation.
EPA
next
adjusted
the
annual
developed
acreage
to
account
for
sites
that
would
not
be
required
to
obtain
a
permit
due
to
the
low
rainfall
erosivity
waiver
contained
in
the
Phase
II
rule,
as
well
as
to
eliminate
sites
less
than
1
acre.
EPA
estimated
based
on
the
Phase
II
economic
analysis
that
33,517
acres
would
qualify
for
a
low
soil
loss
waiver,
and
analysis
of
the
14
community
survey
data
indicates
that
33,828
acres
would
be
in
sites
less
than
1
acre.
This
yields
67,345
acres
of
annual
new
development
that
would
not
be
within
the
scope
of
the
proposal.
EPA
allocated
this
acreage
among
the
four
land
uses
based
on
an
analysis
of
the
number
of
permits
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
34
less
than
five
acres
contained
within
each
respective
segment.
The
results
of
this
allocation
are
contained
in
the
fourth
column
of
Table
4­
19,
and
the
revised
NRI
acreage
accounting
for
waivers
and
sites
less
than
1
acre
is
presented
in
the
last
column
Table
4­
19.
EPA
further
estimated
acreage
that
would
be
eliminated
from
coverage
given
the
5
acre
cutoff
contained
in
Option
2.
A
discussion
of
this
analysis
is
included
in
the
Economic
Analysis
supporting
document.

Table
4­
19.
National
Estimates
of
Land
Area
Disturbed
Based
on
National
Resources
Inventory
Totals
Type
of
Construction
Total
NRI
Acreage
a
Acres
Waived
or
not
Covered
Adjusted
NRI
Acreage
b
Residential
Singlefamily
546,783
12,905
533,878
Multifamily
258,616
6,434
252,182
Nonresidential
Commercial
c
1,377,070
44,594
1,332,476
Industrial
60,932
3,412
57,523
Total
2,243,400
67,345
2,176,058
a.
This
column
distributes
the
total
acreage
estimated
in
NRI
to
be
converted
on
an
annual
basis
(adjusted
for
waivers)
according
to
the
distribution
by
type
of
development
estimated
through
analysis
of
permits
data
contained
in
Table
4­
18.
b.
This
column
presents
the
total
national
acreage
estimated
after
adjusting
for
rainfall
erosivity
waivers
and
sites
less
than
1
acre.
c.
A
number
of
project
types
were
grouped
together
to
form
the
"commercial"
category,
including:
hotels/
motels,
amusement,
religious,
parking
garages,
service
stations,
hospitals,
offices,
public
works,
educational,
stores,
other
nonresidential
buildings.

4.3.2.3
Distribution
of
Developed
Acreage
by
Project
Size
and
Geography
For
each
of
the
four
land
use
categories
in
Table
4­
19,
EPA
developed
a
distribution
to
allocate
developed
acre
estimates
among
six
different
project
size
categories.
The
project
size
distribution
is
based
on
a
survey
of
construction
permits
issued
in
14
communities
conducted
in
support
of
the
Phase
II
storm
water
rule.
Table
4­
20
shows
the
distribution
of
the
14
community
survey
data
by
project
size
for
each
land
use
category.
The
percentages
shown
in
Table
4­
20
were
used
to
allocate
the
total
estimated
development
within
each
of
the
four
land
use
sectors
in
Table
4­
19
into
six
site
size
categories.
The
results
of
this
analysis
are
presented
in
Table
4­
21.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
35
In
addition,
EPA
developed
procedures
to
spatially
distribute
land
development
regionally,
using
19
ecoregions
covering
the
contiguous
states.
A
description
of
this
methodology
is
presented
in
the
Environmental
Assessment
supporting
document.
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
36
Table
4­
20.
Distribution
of
14
Community
Survey
Permits
by
Site
Size
Site
Size
(Acres)
No.
of
Permits
Acres
by
Size
Pct.
Acres
by
Size
Single­
Family
Residential
1
266
266
2.3%

3
228
684
6.0%

7.5
138
1,035
9.0%

25
175
4,375
38.2%

70
30
2,100
18.3%

200
15
3,000
26.2%

Total
852
11,460
100.0%

Multifamily
Residential
1
43431.
2%

3
100
300
8.6%

7.5
61
458
13.2%

25
71
1,775
51.1%

70
10
700
20.1%

200
1
200
5.8%

Total
286
3,476
100.0%

Commercial
1
266
266
4.8%

3
356
1,068
19.4%

7.5
86
645
11.7%

25
91
2,275
41.3%

70
16
1,260
22.9%

200
0
0
0.0%

Total
815
5,514
100.0%
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
Table
4­
20.
Distribution
of
14
Community
Survey
Permits
by
Site
Size
Site
Size
(Acres)
No.
of
Permits
Acres
by
Size
Pct.
Acres
by
Size
June
2002
4­
37
Industrial
1
39395.
7%

3
55
165
23.9%

7.5
10
75
10.9%

25
8
200
29.0%

70
3
210
30.5%

200
0
0
0.0%

Total
115
689
100.0%

Total
1
614
614
2.9%

3
739
2,217
10.5%

7.5
295
2,213
10.5%

25
345
8,625
40.8%

70
59
4,270
20.2%

200
16
3,200
15.1%

Total
2,068
21,139
100.0%

Based
on
permitting
data
from
the
following
municipalities
or
counties:
Austin,
TX;
Baltimore
County,
MD;
Cary,
NC;
Ft.
Collins,
CO;
Lacey,
WA;
Loudoun
County,
VA;
New
Britain,
CT;
Olympia,
WA;
Prince
George's
County,
MD;
Raleigh,
NC;
South
Bend,
IN;
Tallahassee,
FL;
Tucson,
AZ;
and
Waukesha,
WI.
Source:
USEPA,
1999
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
June
2002
4­
38
Table
4­
21.
Distribution
of
National
Construction
by
Site
Size
and
Development
Type
Site
Size
(Acres)
No.
of
Permits
Acres
by
Size
Pct.
Acres
by
Size
Single­
Family
Residential
1
12,392
12,392
2.3%

3
10,622
31,865
6.0%

7.5
6,429
48,217
9.0%

25
8,153
203,815
38.2%

70
1,398
97,831
18.3%

200
699
139,759
26.2%

Total
39,691
533,878
100.0%

Multifamily
Residential
1
3,120
3,120
1.2%

3
7,256
21,768
8.6%

7.5
4,426
33,196
13.2%

25
5,152
128,794
51.1%

70
726
50,792
20.1%

200
73
14,512
5.8%

Total
20,752
252,182
100.0%

Commercial
1
64,280
64,280
4.8%

3
86,029
258,086
19.4%

7.5
20,782
155,866
11.7%

25
21,990
549,761
41.3%

70
4,350
304,483
22.9%

200
0
0
0.0%

Total
197,431
1,332,476
100.0%
Development
Document
for
Construction
and
Development
Proposed
Effluent
Guidelines
Table
4­
21.
Distribution
of
National
Construction
by
Site
Size
and
Development
Type
Site
Size
(Acres)
No.
of
Permits
Acres
by
Size
Pct.
Acres
by
Size
June
2002
4­
39
Industrial
1
3,256
3,256
5.7%

3
4,592
13,775
23.9%

7.5
835
6,262
10.9%

25
668
16,698
29.0%

70
250
17,532
30.5%

200
0
0
0.0%

Total
9,601
57,523
100.0%

Totals
1
83,048
83,048
3.8%

3
108,498
325,494
15.0%

7.5
32,472
243,541
11.2%

25
35,963
899,067
41.3%

70
6,723
470,638
21.6%

200
771
154,271
7.1%

Grand
Total
267,475
2,176,059
100.0%

Based
on
permitting
data
from
the
following
municipalities
or
counties:
Austin,
TX;
Baltimore
County,
MD;
Cary,
NC;
Ft.
Collins,
CO;
Lacey,
WA;
Loudoun
County,
VA;
New
Britain,
CT;
Olympia,
WA;
Prince
George's
County,
MD;
Raleigh,
NC;
South
Bend,
IN;
Tallahassee,
FL;
Tuscon,
AZ;
and
Waukesha,
WI.
Source:
USEPA,
1999.

4.4
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