 

	UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON, D.C.  20460

OFFICE OF           

PREVENTION, PESTICIDES

AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES

July 24, 2006

MEMORANDUM 

SUBJECT:	Crop Grouping – Part III:  Analysis of the USDA IR-4 Petition
to Amend the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR 180.41 (c) and Commodity
Definitions [40 CFR 180.1 (h)] Related to New Crop Group 21 Edible
Fungi.  MRID 467897-01.

FROM:	Bernard A. Schneider, Ph.D., Senior Plant Physiologist

Chemistry and Exposure Branch  

Health Effects Division (7509P)  

THRU:	Michael Doherty, Ph.D and William Donovan, Ph.D., Chairpersons

HED Chemistry Science Advisory Council (ChemSAC)

Health Effects Division (7509P)  

TO:	Barbara Madden, Minor Use Officer

Risk Integration, Minor Use, and Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB) 

		Registration Division (7505P)

cc: 	IR-4 Project, Hong Chen, Jerry Baron, Bob Holm, Dan Kunkel 

REQUEST:

Dr Hong Chen, Crop Grouping Coordinator and Dr. Van Starner, Crop Group
13 Workgroup Chairperson, have submitted a petition (May 16, 2005) on
behalf of the USDA Interregional Research Project No. 4 (IR-4) to amend
the Crop Group Regulation 40 CFR 180.41 (c) to establish a new crop
group for Edible Fungi.  

The above mentioned Edible fungi crop group petition requested the
following three amendments be made to establish a new Edible fungi crop
group: 

	1. Amend the the crop grouping regulation in 40 CFR ( 180.41 (c) to
establish a new Edible fungi group.  Following the crop group sequence
it will be crop group 21.

	2. Amend the crop group regulation [40 CFR 180.41 (c)] by adding twenty
commodities to the Edible fungi group that consists of the following:

Blewitt, Lepista nuda (Bull.:Fr.) Cooke (Tricholomataceae)

Bunashimeji, Hypsizygus marmoreus (Agaricaceae)

Chinese mushroom, Volvariella volvacea (Bull.) Singer (Pluteaceae)

Enoke, Flammulina velutipes (Curt.) Singer (Tricholomataceae) 

Hime-Matsutake, Agaricus blazei Murill (Agaricaceae) 

Hirmeola, Auricularia auricula (Auriculariaceae)

Maitake, Grifola frondosa (Polyporaceae) 

Morel, Morchella spp. (Morchellaceae)

Nameko, Pholiota nameko, (Strophariaceae)

Net Bearing Dictyophora, Dictyophora indusiata (Phallaceae)

Oyster Mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) Kummer (Tricholomataceae)

Pom Pom, Hericium erinaceus (Hydnaceae) 

Reishi Mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae)

Rodman(s Agaricus, Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Saccardo (Agaricaceae)

Shiitake mushroom, Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegl. (Polyporaceae) 

Shimeji, Tricholoma conglobatum, (Tricholomataceae)

Stropharia, Stropharia spp. (Strophariaceae)

Truffle, Tuber spp. (Tuberaceae)

White button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach (Agaricaceae)

White Jelly fungi, Tremella fuciformis (Tremellaceae) 

3. Define representative crops for Edible Fungi Group as: “White
button mushroom and any one Oyster mushroom or any one Shiitake
mushroom”.

	Each of these proposals will be reviewed in the following analysis:

BACKGROUND:

	The Edible Fungi Crop Group proposal was initiated at the USDA/IR-4
Crop Grouping Symposium in Arlington, VA, October 2002.  This workgroup,
Chaired by USDA IR-4 Associate Director Jerry Baron and Co-Chaired by
Robin Bellinder, Rick Griffin, Christine Smith, and Bill Wassell.  The
Workgroup discussed and validated each of the proposed commodities.  It
was further discussed and developed within the Fruiting Vegetables
Workgroup of the International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee
(ICGCC).  The International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC)
formed after the symposium by IR-4 has grown to more than 73 U.S. crop
or regulatory experts from agriculture commodity groups, universities,
agrichemical industry, IR-4 Project, USDA, and EPA, and 33 international
crop or regulatory experts representing over 30 countries.  The
Workgroup concluded that an entirely new edible fungi crop group should
be established to incorporate the various types of mushrooms. 
Approximately 20 orphan mushroom commodities would fit into a single
crop group to meet growers’ needs for crop protection and to
facilitate import/export tolerances.  The ICGCC Workgroup has discussed
and validated each of the current and proposed commodities, group, and
subgroups.  

The proposed Edible Fungi Group includes 20 commodities in 12 fungi
families including Agaricaceae, Auriculariaceae, Ganodermataceae,
Hydnaceae, Morchellaceae, Phallaceae, Pluteaceae, Polyporaceae,
Strophariaceae, Tremellaceae, Tricholomataceae, and Tuberaceae.  There
is no specific crop group for edible fungi in current EPA crop grouping
regulation, which was established in 1983 and updated in 1995.  Many
minor edible fungi species are considered ethnic crops and were not
common food items in the U.S. until recently.  Since 1983 there has been
an explosion of ethnic crop demands and commercial production including
many minor edible fungi species and varieties.  These “orphan
crops”, now grown commercially or cultivated in a small scale farming
operations, are sold and consumed in the U.S. or other regions or
countries.  Many of these are of economically importance, or have great
potential to be grown in larger scales in the future due to their
nutritional values, medicinal properties, or the increased market demand
driven by the growing ethnic populations.  Without a crop group
regulation on edible fungi, tolerances requested for these commodities
would have to be established separately, based on separate residue
studies with similar results, which requires much higher costs and
longer registration times limiting the development of pest management
production practices.  The inclusion of these commodities in a crop
group will benefit growers, consumers, save time and tax payer’s money
on residue studies, save time for government agencies on review of
residue data, and facilitate the establishment of import tolerances. 
Acreages of these edible fungi, however, are also limited by pest
problems and a lack of pesticides available to the grower to control the
pests and help them develop integrated pest management (IPM) programs.  

Edible Fungi are not included in either current US EPA Crop Grouping or
in the Codex Classification of Food and Animal Feed.  Edible fungi, or
mushrooms, have tremendous potential value both for food and medicine. 
In recent years worldwide mushroom cultivation and production have
merged as a special agricultural industry producing more than 6 millions
of tons mushrooms per year.  Scientists in many countries have developed
new methods of mushroom cultivation, resulting in 25 species being
potentially cultivated worldwide (HAIFA).  Total mushroom production
world-wide has increased more than 18-fold in the last 32 years from
about 350,000 metric tons in 1965 to about 6,160,800 metric tons in 1997
(Royse).  More mushroom species and varieties are being demanded by
consumers, restaurants, and pharmaceutical companies to be used in
cooking and food or medicinal supplements.  In 2001 to 2002, the United
States produced 393,197 metric tons of mushrooms, which was about 7% of
the total world production (USDA 2002).  In 2004 the United States
produced 391,000 metric tons of mushrooms, which was about 12% of the
total world production (3,214,071 metric tons) (FAO STATISTICS 2004). 
According to the scientific literature, the white button mushroom
(Agaricus bisporus) accounted for over 90% of total mushroom production
value while shiitake (Lentinula), oyster mushroom (Pleurotus), maitake
(Grifola), enoki (Flammulina), beech or bunashimeji mushroom
(Hypsizygus), pom pom (Hericium), and morel (Morchella) were the main
specialty genera cultivated (Royse).  

Another important aspect of a crop group is the harmonization with the
Codex Crop Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds.  The Codex
classification system is currently under revision.  The IR-4/EPA Crop
Grouping Working Group and the ICGCC are making every effort to
collaborate with the revision of the Codex crop classification.  In the
current Codex Crop Classification of Foods and Animal Feeds the
commodity term “mushrooms – cultivated cultivars of Agaricus spp.”
is included in Group 012, “Fruiting vegetables, other than
Cucurbits”.  There is no specific crop group for edible fungi.  The
Codex Revision workgroup has been working with the ICGCC on the U.S.
crop grouping revision, and is making an effort to harmonize the two
crop classification systems.  The inclusion of these mushroom species in
edible fungi group will ultimately benefit US growers in exporting
commodities that would have Codex MRLs established based on a harmonized
edible fungi crop group.

RECOMMENDATIONS:

Each of the three proposals and will be discussed below, followed by a
series of other recommendations on terminology, database development,
and harmonization with Codex.  The EPA would like to commend the
valuable and high quality input of the ICGCC, all its members, leader,
and the Workgroup Chairperson.

Proposal 1:

	“Amend the crop group in 40 CFR 180.41 (c) to add new crop group
Edible fungi”.

Recommendation for Proposal 1:

	I recommend that ChemSAC concur on amending the crop group regulation
[40 CFR 180.41 (c)] to establish a new crop group for Edible fungi.  The
name of the group will be Edible fungi group 21.  For our purposes
mushrooms are fungi that have a fruiting stalk or stipe and a top called
a cap, other fungi not having this recognized shape are called edible
fungi.  Instead of the crop group called mushrooms it will be called
edible fungi which covers all of the types of edible fungi proposed for
this crop group. 

Proposal 2:

	Add the following 20 commodities to the new crop group Edible fungi as
follows:

Blewitt, Lepista nuda (Tricholomataceae)

Bunashimeji, Hypsizygus marmoreus (Agaricaceae)

Chinese mushroom, Volvariella volvacea (Bull.) Singer (Pluteaceae)

Enoke, Flammulina velutipes (Curt.) Singer (Tricholomataceae) 

Hime-Matsutake, Agaricus blazei Murill (Agaricaceae) 

Hirmeola, Auricularia auricula (Auriculariaceae)

Maitake, Grifola frondosa (Polyporaceae) 

Morel, Morchella spp. (Morchellaceae)

Nameko, Pholiota nameko, (Strophariaceae)

Net bearing dictyophora, Dictyophora indusiata (Phallaceae)

Oyster mushroom, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) Kummer (Tricholomataceae)

Pom pom, Hericium erinaceus (Hydnaceae) 

Reishi mushroom, Ganoderma lucidum (Leyss. Fr.) Karst. (Ganodermataceae)

Rodman(s agaricus, Agaricus bitorquis (Quel.) Saccardo (Agaricaceae)

Shiitake mushroom, Lentinula edodes (Berk.) Pegl. (Polyporaceae) 

Shimeji, Tricholoma conglobatum, (Tricholomataceae)

Stropharia, Stropharia spp. (Strophariaceae)

Truffle, Tuber spp. (Tuberaceae)

White button mushroom, Agaricus bisporus (Lange) Imbach (Agaricaceae)

White jelly fungi, Tremella fuciformis (Tremellaceae)  

Recommendation for Proposal 2:

Based on similarities in cultural practices, edible food portions,
residue levels, geographical locations, similar pest problems, and lack
of animal feed items and for international harmonization purposes, I
recommend that ChemSAC concur to establish an new Crop Group 21 Edible
fungi group.  This new crop group will have no crop subgroups associated
with it.  The singular commodity names are used throughout the crop
grouping proposal to conform to the updated EPA Food and Feed Commodity
Vocabulary (  HYPERLINK "http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed" 
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed ).  While some of the other added
orphan crops are also considered very minor, such as shimeji, we feel
they fit well in this group because they are grown in other countries
and demand from immigrants to have native crops grown in the U.S.
indicate greater potential development as a specialty crop, as well as
opportunities for our growers to produce new specialty crops.  The
preferred commodity names for bunashimeji and enoke shall be beech
mushroom and Enoki, respectively.  Also, the scientific name for oyster
mushroom [Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq.) Kummer] should be changed to
Pleurotus spp. because there are several species that are used to
produce oyster mushrooms.  The scientific names for all of the edible
fungi were reviewed and verified by Dr. John H. Wiersema, Botanist, USDA
Systematic Botany and Mycology Laboratory, and Germplasm Resources
Information Network (GRIN).  

Proposal 3:

	“Define representative commodities for the Edible Fungi Group as:
White button mushroom and any one Oyster mushroom or any one Shiitake
mushroom”.

Recommendation for Proposal 3:

	I am recommending that ChemSAC concur to have the representative
commodities for this new crop group to become “White button mushroom
and any one Oyster mushroom or any one Shiitake mushroom”.  Cultivars
and hybrids between members of this Crop group are also included as
members of this group.  These representative commodities were chosen
base on the high production, economic importance, and cultural
practices.  The cultural practices, pest problems, and commercial
production of different edible fungi are similar.  White button mushroom
represents most of the U.S. production and specialty mushrooms which are
expanding in the U.S. will be represented by the oyster or shiitake
mushroom.  Previous tolerances were established using residue data from
the white button mushroom.  The number of field trials for this crop
group will be three based on production and identical to the current
requirement.  Two field trials will be conducted with the white button
mushroom and one field trial will be conducted either using the oyster
mushroom or the shiitake mushroom.  

Additional Recommendations:

 4.  There will be no commodity definitions necessary in 40 CFR 180.1
(h) for mushrooms or specialty mushrooms.  

 5  The portion on the raw agricultural commodity sampled for tolerance
purposes is the cap and the stipe or stem.

 6.  Members of the edible fungi group are not rotated to another crop.

 7.  There will be no livestock feed items associated with the Edible
fungi crop group.  

 8.  Guidance for HED SOP 99.6 -  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1  “Classification
of Food Forms with Respect to Level of Blending” issued August 20,
1999, and HED SOP 2000.1 – “  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 Guidance for
Translation of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the
Crop Group Regulation to Other Commodities in Each Crop
Group/Subgroup” issued September 12, 2000 can be updated to reflect
the new edible fungi crop group 21.

 9.  Guidance on expressing tolerance terminology for the Edible fungi
crop group 21 is discussed under the “Tolerance expression guidance
section of this analysis.

10.  New lookup and preferred EPA terms for the Edible fungi crop group
are listed in the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Vocabulary section of this
report and these terms will need to be added to the updated EPA Food and
Feed Commodity Vocabulary website (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed" 
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/foodfeed ).  

ANALYSIS OF THE USDA IR-4 PROPOSAL TO ESTABLISH A NEW EDIBLE FUNGI CROP
GROUP 21:

BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES: 

	This proposed Crop Group 21, Edible Fungi Group, includes 20
commodities in 12 fungi families including Agaricaceae, Auriculariaceae,
Ganodermataceae, Hydnaceae, Morchellaceae, Phallaceae, Pluteaceae,
Polyporaceae, Strophariaceae, Tremellaceae, Tricholomataceae, and
Tuberaceae.  There is no specific crop group for edible fungi in current
EPA crop grouping regulation, which was established in 1983 and updated
in 1995.  Many minor edible fungi species are considered ethnic crops
and were not common food items in the U.S. until recently.  

	The edible fungi have records of use dating back over 5,000 years. 
While mushrooms are fungi they will grow and fruit much like a plant,
but they lack roots, stems, leaves, flowers and seeds and chlorophyll. 
Lacking chlorophyll they do not produce energy from photosynthesis and
need its nutrition from specific prepared composted media.  While not
botanically a vegetable, edible fungi are consumed like most vegetables.
 Larger edible fungi are often called mushroom and have a cap on a
stalk-like structure called a stipe (see Figure 1).  A mature three inch
mushroom produces spores instead of seeds with up to 40 million
spores/hour and workers are advised to wear respiratory masks while in
the production areas.  Over the entire growing season one mushroom can
produce about 16 billion spores. 

	Many mushrooms are being researched for their potential medicinal uses
such as in antitumor treatments, cardiovascular benefits, increase
immune response, antiviral treatments, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory
agents, antibiotic effects, hepatitis treatment, and cholesterol
lowering drugs.  

What is a Mushroom? 

A mushroom is the 'fruit' of certain fungi also called fleshy fungi,
analogous to the apple on a tree or a tomato on a tomato plant.  Most of
the fungus is unseen as it colonizes and absorbs nutrients from wood,
fallen leaves, or organic matter in soil.  As a group, fungi can grow on
almost any carbon source (a substrate).  Instead of roots, fungi are
composed of tubular, branched filaments known as hyphae and a mass of
hyphae is called the mycelium.  Many fungi, including some that form
edible mushrooms, are saprophytes that obtain their food by colonizing
dead organic matter.  A number of saprophytic fungi are cultivated for
their edible mushrooms.  When the combination of temperature, relative
humidity, carbon dioxide levels is optimal, the fungus will develop a
highly organized structure from the mycelium called a mushroom.  Most of
the forms of mushrooms that are recognized by the consumer are also
called gilled mushrooms.  They are usually umbrella shaped with a
cylindrical stem attached o the underside of the gill.  Oyster,
shiitake, and enoki are classic gilled mushrooms.  Other mushrooms have
a pore structure and are called polypores.  The mushroom releases
millions of spores, which have a function similar to the seeds of
plants.  

	Mushrooms are classified into three basic groups as saprophytic,
parasitic, or mycorrhizal.  Most cultivated mushrooms are saprophytic,
especially those that grow on wood.  Some fungi are parasites, living on
plants, animals, or other fungi, while some are parasitic and
pathogenic, while some of the parasitic are beneficial.  A mutual
beneficial partnership between a fungus that lives in the roots of a
plant (which provides sugars to the fungus) and the plant (which
receives minerals from the fungus), is called a mycorrhiza.  Many fungi
that form mushrooms exist in mycorrhizal relationships with trees, and
this is one of the reasons why forests are often generous to mushroom
hunters.  Some wild mushrooms, including the popular Porcini, Matsutake,
and Chanterelles, are mycorrhizal mushrooms and as such cannot yet be
cultivated without cultivating its host tree.  Truffles are a type of
mycorrhizal fungi extensively cultivated in France, and often are grown
in association with oaks and take up to 10 years to produce the first
crop.  These mushrooms are sometimes available in stores, but they are
still collected from a forest.  The climate of the U.S. is not suited
for outdoor commercial production of mushrooms, so they are grown in
natural caves or commercial designed climate controlled greenhouse
structures. 

What is a Specialty Mushroom? 

The most popular mushroom consumed in the United States has been for
years the white button mushroom.  Because it dominates the market, many
call anything other than the button mushroom a specialty mushroom. 
Following that logic, the portobello is the most popular specialty
mushroom, even though it is simply a brown variety of the button
mushroom that is allowed to mature.  The term “specialty mushroom”
refers to any mushroom other than the white button mushroom. In the
United States, other popular specialty mushrooms are the Shiitake,
Oyster, and Enoki.  Several other cultivated mushrooms are grown, but
they are not yet as widely available.  Truffle orchards are maintained
in France, Spain, and Italy with the Perigold black truffle (Tuber
melanosperum) selling for up to $500/pound.  

The most efficient way for this group of edible fungi to receive food
use clearances in the future is to utilize the representative
commodities in conducting residue studies.  The representative
commodities for this group shall be the white button mushroom and oyster
or shiitake mushroom.  These two representative commodities are greater
than 99% of the edible fungi production, and cover the common forms of
cultivation from the classical mushroom house compost bins to artifical
logs, and platic bags or bottle production.  For the purpose of
pesticide residue research and maximum benefit of the tolerance
establishment, the proposed eight subgroups were classified based on the
overall consideration of the botanical characteristics, cultural
practice similarities, and pest problems.  Although some commodities in
the proposed crop group are not currently in commercial production in
the U.S., they may enter U.S. markets as imported products or be
introduced as new or alternative cash crops to the U.S. farmers in the
near future; especially as indoor cultivation practices are established.
 

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDIBLE FUNGI

	Understanding how the mushrooms grow and develop is a key part of
developing a pest control strategy for optimum yield and quality and a
helpful reference for analysis of residue field trials by EPA
scientists.  Some of the recognized growth stages for mushrooms are
discussed below and in Table 1 and shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3: 

	The developmental stages for the edible fungi are listed as spawn run,
primordial initiation, fruiting, and harvest in Table 1.  

Growth Parameters for Producing Edible Fungi:

	The mushroom grower requires a great deal of knowledge and skill to
control the environmental and cultural practices to produce maximum
yields of mushrooms.  There are three main growth parameters or cycles
needed to produce edible fungi before harvest.  These are (1) the
incubation period called spawn run; (2) the initiation period for
mushrooms called primordial formation or the pinhead stage; and (3) the
cropping stage called the fruitbody or fruiting body development stage. 
Each stage of edible fungi development requires a different and strictly
controlled environment ideal for mushroom growth.  

	The spawn run is the period of time from adding the mycelium to the
growth substrate or media to its colonization or inoculation of the
substrate.  The growing factors that need to be controlled are moisture
(between 60 – 75%) and high humidity; air exchange with an increased
carbon dioxide level useful to stimulate the fungi growth (200,000 ppm
); the temperature cannot exceed 35° C; and lighting cannot exceed
10,000 lux.  The primordial formation is a shift in the environmental
variables that triggers mushroom growth.  The four major factors in the
initiation strategy are moisture, air exchange rates, temperature, and
light.  The moisture levels are increased by high humidity (95 – 100
%) which helps form the primordial also called pinhead stage. The oxygen
levels are increased and the carbon dioxide levels decreased below 500
ppm.  Each species has different temperature requirements.  Lighting
helps signal the mycelium that they are in an outdoor setting such as
under a forest canopy.  The fruiting body or mushroom development stage
is also dependent on moisture air exchange, temperature, lighting and
duration of harvest.  The moisture level is reduced before harvest, air
exchange reduces the carbon dioxide levels, and temperatures may be
raised and light management to delay stem elongation.  The timing of the
crops from their first appearance, the duration of harvest and the
period of time between crops are specific strain and process dependent. 
For example, oyster mushroom is grown on pasteurized straw and has two
to three flushes or cycles of growth.  Approximately, one to two weeks
separate the end of the first flush to the beginning of the second
flush.  A period of dormancy occurs between each crop cycle so that
nutrients can be accumulated by the mycelium for the next growth cycle. 


Table 1.  Typical Production Schedules for Edible Fungi Grown in Five
Pound Bags of Supplemented Sawdust [adapted from R. Davis and B.
Aegerter. 2000; Edible Mushroom Production SOMA; and Paul Stamets. 2000,
Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms.  Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, CA,
574 pp.].





Mushroom 

Spawn run 

Primordia initiation 

Fruiting (63° F and high humidity) 

Total time to harvest/ cropping cycle 

Beech mushroom

30 – 45 days

7 – 12 days

5 – 10 days

6 – 9 weeks/ two crops at 3 weeks apart. 

Black Poplar  (Agrocybe aegerita)

3 - 4 weeks 

1 - 2 weeks 

1 week 

5 - 6 weeks/ 10 – 14 days apart 

Chinese mushroom 

4 – 10 days

3 – 6 days

6 – 10 days

3 weeks/ cycle 7 – 12 days

Enoki 

14 - 21 days 

1 - 2 weeks 

1 week 

6 weeks/ only one flush per crop cycle.  days. Yields are 160 – 220
g/800 ml bottle.

Hime-matsutake

28 – 40 days on compost;  60 – 90 days on sawdust 

18 – 24 days

4 – 8 days

Every 2 to 3 weeks for 2 – 3 flushes

Hirmeola or wood ear

25 – 40 days

5 – 10 days

5 – 7 days

8 to 8 weeks/ every 2 – 3 weeks for 3 – 5 flushes

Maitake 

35 days or less 

During spawn ran; primordia darken in 9 days; cut holes over largest,
fold over bag 

Clusters take shape in 11 days; harvest 8 - 15 days later 

63 - 98 days/ cycle 3 – 4 weeks. 

Nameko 

2 - 3 weeks 

After 1 - 2weeks in fruiting room, remove block from bag and place in
loosely closed bag at 54° F until primiordia form 

1-2 weeks 

2+ months/ two crops in 60 days with 10 – 14 days apart

Oyster 

12 – 16 days 

2 - 5 days

4 - 8 days 

3 - 4 weeks/ three to 4 crops every 7 – 14 days apart 

Pom pom 

10 - 14 days 

3 – 5 days 

4 – 5 days

5 - 6 weeks cycle  14 days apart

Portabella

18 – 20 days

12 – 18 days

4 – 7 days

1 – 2 months /every other week for 3 flushes

Reishi 

3 - 5 weeks 

During spawn run 

7 - 9 weeks 

3 + months/ two crops in 90 – 120 days 

Rodman’s agaricus

14 days

10 – 12 days

3 weeks

Flushes every 8 – 9 days.  Yields 3 lb/sq ft

Shiitake

35 – 100+ days (strain dependent) 

2 - 3 days at 40° F.  5 - 7 days at  60° F 

1 - 2 weeks 

2 - 4 months/ Flush every 2 – 3 weeks for 8 – 12 weeks.   Yields 2
– 3 lb/log. 

Stropharia

25 – 45 days

14 – 21 days at 50 - 60° F

7 – 14 days

1 – 2 months/ two crops 3 – 4 weeks apart

White jelly fungi

7 – 15 days

5 – 7 days

7 – 12 days

3 – 9 weeks/ every 2 – 3 weeks for 2 - 3 flushes, yield/bag is 35
– 40 g dry weight.

White button mushroom

7 – 21 days

14 – 12 days

21 – 42 days

Flush 8 – 12 days.  Up to 4 months/cropping cycle 3 to 4 times every 8
days.  Total time/crop 12 weeks.





What substrates are used to grow mushrooms?

Compost provides nutrients so that the mushroom will grow.  Although the
common white button mushroom is grown on straw-based compost, most
specialty mushrooms are grown on sawdust supplemented with other
nutrients.  Many types of wood are suitable, but alder and oak are the
most popular.  Cedar and redwood are resistant to colonization by most
fungi, including the cultivated mushrooms, and should not be used. 
Pines are also unsuitable since most cultivated fungi are inhibited by
the resins in the wood.  The coarseness of wood sawdust should be about
that from a chain saw. Larger chips can be included (use 2 parts of
sawdust to I part wood chips).  Sawdust should be sterilized at 250° F
at 15 PSI (pounds per square inch) for 2 to 4 hours, depending on
volume.  This is accomplished in an autoclave, a retort, or pressure
cooker. A common recipe for supplemented sawdust is: 76% sawdust, 12%
millet, and 12% bran, and 65% moisture.  Other materials that can be
composted include straw, manure straw from horse barns, corn cobs,
cotton and cacao seed hulls, gypsum, and nitrogen supplements.  Wheat
grain is the most commonly used medium for spawn production.  Compost
additions are always based on dry weights of the ingredients because
moisture contents of the ingredients vary.  The standard industry
container for growing specialty mushrooms in sawdust is a heat-resistant
plastic bag fitted with a filter patch, which allows gas exchange but
excludes contaminating microorganisms.

How are mushrooms grown?

	Mushrooms are produced in trays or fixed shelves called beds or in
plastic bags or bottles that are filled with compost inside specially
designed buildings called mushroom houses.  The standard production room
contains 8000 ft2 of producing surface and it is called a ‘double’;
average production is 5.8 lbs ft2 (fresh weight) per crop cycle. 
Mushroom production involves four several carefully controlled
practices: (1) composting, (2) spawning or spawn run, (3) casing, (4)
pinning and (4) harvesting (see Figure 2). 

Practice I.  Composting:

	Composting, the first step in mushroom production, is the production of
a nutritious substrate necessary for mushroom growth.  The major
component of compost is straw to which supplements such as, urea,
gypsum, cottonseed or canola meal, cottonseed hulls, alfalfa meal, cocoa
hulls, dried brewer’s grain, sugar beet pulp, grape pomace, or horse
and chicken manures are added.  Mushroom substrate makers are called
composters and use large amounts of low value farm products including:
straw, hay, corn cobs, poultry litter, wheat straw bedded horse manure. 
Recipes for mushroom composts vary widely between companies.  Mushroom
farmers not only produce a valuable crop, they also purchase and recycle
large quantities of other farm grown materials.  Gypsum is also added to
improve the physical structure of the compost and to provide calcium for
biological activity.  Compost components are wetted, mixed, piled and
allowed to compost.  The piles are turned to prevent an anaerobic
center.  Optimum compost temperature should reach 155-170ºF.  Achieving
the proper composting temperatures is essential for production of a
substrate semi-selective for mushroom growth.  Good compost reduces the
chances of fungal and bacterial problems later during mushroom growth. 
The compost is then loaded into trays and the trays moved inside the
house.  Aerated steam is piped into the room and the temperature held at
140ºF for at least two hours.  This pasteurizes the compost killing
harmful nematodes, flies, bacterial and fungal pathogens.  The
temperature is then lowered slowly over several days.

	There are two phases involved in composting preparation.  The first
phase begins by mixing and wetting the bulk ingredients and may take 3
to 15 days to precondition the piles to make them receptive to water. 
Phase I is complete when the raw ingredients are pliable and capable of
holding water (68 – 75% moisture) and the color is dark brown with a
pH of 7.0 – 7.5 and has a distinct ammonia smell.  Phase II of the
composting cycle is the pasteurization and final composting which kills
any pests and reduces alien fungi competition to allow for optimum
spawning.    The final compost is then filled into one of three types of
mushroom growing systems.  The different systems depend on the container
in which the crop is processed and grown.  The system places the
substrate into boxes or trays and is moved from room to room.  Each room
has a different heating, ventilation, and air condition system for each
step of mushroom development.  The second growing system is a single
zone or bed farm which consists of several large stacked beds or shelves
within a single room and is kept in one room for the whole growing
process.  The third growing system is the bulk pasteurization or tunnels
where the substrate is filled into tractor-trailer bins with perforated
floors and no covers on the top of the compost.  The purpose of the
Phase II composting is to pasteurize the substrate to eliminate pest
organisms and toxic ammonia.  This phase takes from 10 to 18 days, and
the entire composting period lasts three to four weeks.  

Step II.  Spawning or Spawn Run: 

	After the compost is prepared and sterilized in the plastic bag or
other suitable containers such as beds or trays that are filled to a
depth of 6 – 8 inches, spawn is added to the prepared compost. 
Mycelium colonized grain is called spawn, inoculation is called spawning
and growth of the mycelium from the desired species into the compost is
called spawn running.  Spawn is a sterilized cereal grain, rye, millet,
wheat, etc, that is thoroughly grown through with inoculation of the
mushroom mycelium.  The purity of the spawn is critical.  Spawn is
produced in an aseptic building by about a dozen highly specialized
companies who sell their products to mushroom growers.  The amount of
spawn used depends on crop cycle and cost, and the spawning rate
(similar to seeding a crop) is applied at a rate of one unit (1 – 2 %
dry weight) every 12 – 15 sq ft to a rate of one unit (> 3% of compost
dry weight) for every 12 – 15 sq ft.  In most specialty mushrooms,
spawn is added at a rate of 2.5% or more of the dry weight of the
substrate.  After the bag is hermetically sealed, the spawn is evenly
distributed throughout the sawdust by shaking the bag.  Depending on the
species of mushroom, the substrate is usually fully captured by the
mycelium within 2 to 6 weeks.  The spawn growing period for the white
button mushroom is usually 10 - 18 days.  Spawn run temperatures should
be 70 - 75°F.  The second step for spawning is to hold the temperature
of the compost to 76-80ºF, and inoculate or seed the compost with
mushroom mycelium.  The mushroom house is maintained at 77ºF and 90%
relative humidity during the spawn run.  Substrate preparation, mushroom
composting, is a process of recycling organic matter to create a
physical and biological medium optimized for mushroom production that
requires 4 to 6 weeks.  

Step III. Casing:

	The casing stage starts after the mycelium has thoroughly colonized the
compost a casing layer of peat moss, and limestone is added to the top
of the trays.  The mycelium completely colonizes the casing layer in
approximately three days.  Then the casing is watered lightly several
times to promote the fourth stage or pinhead (mushroom primordial)
formation.  The casing induces the mycelia to change from the vegetative
growth to the reproductive or fruiting stage.  

Step IV.  Pinning and Harvesting:  

	When tiny white protrusions form on the mycelium and push up through
the peat moss, this stage is called pinning, pinhead, or fruit body
formation (See Figures 2 and 3).  To initiate mushroom formation,
temperatures are dropped for two days to two weeks, CO2, levels are
lowered by introducing fresh air, and light is provided.  Often, the
bags are simply opened and moved to the growing room.  The pinheads are
knots of mycelium that eventually develop into mushrooms.  All species
of mushrooms require a specific set of environmental conditions for
pinning that are different from the conditions for optimum mycelial
growth. Most, if not all, cultivated mushrooms fruit at lower
temperatures than the optimum for compost or substrate colonization. The
last step, fruiting or fruiting body, is the development of the pins
into mature mushrooms.  Mushrooms develop from the pinheads in growth
cycles called breaks or flushes.  During a break many mushrooms develop
more or less the same time.  The time between breaks can be 7 to 10
days.  Trays may be picked for 2-4 breaks depending on the grower, and
there may be up to eight cycles of spawning per tray or house per year. 
The colonized bag of substrate is placed in a growing room maintained at
cool temperatures (63° F is a good average for most mushrooms) with a
high relative humidity (85-95%).  Although the common button mushroom
does not require light, all of the other mushrooms need some light for
proper development.  For most specialty mushrooms, the bag may be
removed from the sawdust block after spawn run is complete.  It is often
desirable, however, to remove only the top half of the bag so the sides
of the bag reduce air movement across the top of the block, thus
maintaining high humidity.  In the production of oyster and pom pom
mushrooms, holes are cut in the plastic bag and the mushrooms are
allowed to grow through the holes.  In shiitake production, the plastic
bag is usually completely removed since this mushroom develops a tough
skin on the surface of the sawdust substrate.  The entire process from
preparing compost to mushroom harvest and shipped to market takes about
4 months.  Each production room is occupied by a crop for 10 to 12 weeks
which means 4 - 5 crops can be grown in a room each year.  When the
mushroom house is depleted the crop is terminated and the production
room is steam pasteurized, cleaned out and prepared for another filling.
 The spent compost is also pasteurized to avoid contaminating other
farms.  The spent mushroom substrate (SMS) or compost (SMC) is high in
organic matter and often used for mulch or it is spread on newly seeded
lawns or to increase organic matter in agricultural fields.  

Special equipment necessary to grow mushrooms:

	Although spawning and spawn run can be accomplished in any clean room
at normal room temperature with fresh air, sterile techniques are
absolutely necessary for successful cultivation of most mushrooms.  Such
methods include: a clean lab bench (swab with 50% disinfectant, 10%
bleach, or 70% ethyl alcohol); washed hands (wash with soap and spray
with alcohol); clean clothes; and clean air.  While HEPA filters (high
efficiency particulate air filters) are not absolutely necessary in the
work space (0.3 micron particles in the air are removed with 99.99%
efficiency, i.e., only one out of every 10,000 particles of that size
will pass the filter), so most cultivators employ one.  

Some mushroom houses use bed farms, where the entire process of
substrate preparation and composting takes place in the rooms.  This
results in a longer period of time for each crop, but only three crop
breaks.  This practice is more common in Pennsylvania than California. 
The growing room requires special conditions. In addition to cooling
requirements (60 to 63° F), the humidity must be maintained at about
95% (or even higher in some situations) with just enough air movement to
avoid pockets of stagnant air.  Excessive air movement, even with high
relative humidity, will dry the surface of a substrate and can damage
delicate pinheads.  Creating a very humid environment for mushroom
production is perhaps the limiting factor in indoor home cultivation. 

Figure 1:  Mushroom Structures:

 

Mushroom: plant without flowers or chlorophyll, fast-growing, especially
in dark, damp locations.

Scale: small, hard plate that covers and protects the mushroom.

Tubes: duct.

Pores: small holes.

Stipe, stalk: part of the mushroom between the cap and the soil.

Scales: small, hard plates that cover and protect the mushroom.

Volva: thick membrane covering the foot of the mushroom.

Ring: membrane that envelops part of the stem.

Gills: each of the gills forming the head of the mushroom.

Cap: top of the mushroom.

http://www.infovisual.info/01/025_en.html

Figure 2. 

 

Growth cycle of a mushroom: plant without flowers or chlorophyll,
fast-growing, especially in dark, damp locations.

Gill: gills forming the head of the mushroom

Cap: top of the mushroom.

Ring: membrane that envelops part of the stem.

Stipe: part of the mushroom between the cap and the soil.

Vegetable mycelium: filament forming the vegetative apparatus of a
mushroom.

Basidiospore: spores carried by a basidium.

Basidium: plant expansion that carries spores.



Figure 3:  AN OVERVIEW OF THE MUSHROOM LIFE CYCLE

 

Copyright 1995 by Paul Stamets

U.S./NAFTA AND WORLD PRODUCTION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE
EDIBLE FUNGI: 

	Proposed members of the Edible fungi crop group find widespread
distribution throughout the world.  Table 2 provides a list of the
countries producing common cultivated mushrooms in 1997 and Table 2 has
additional information on worldwide production of oyster mushrooms. 
Table 3 provides information on mushroom production in 1997 for the
various countries that are members of the International Crop Grouping
Consulting Committee (ICGCC).  

	The white button mushroom (Agaricus spp.) is the most widely produced
mushroom in the world followed by the shiitake mushroom (Table 1).  It
is cultivated in over 100 countries.  The largest increase in production
from 1986 to 1997 was from the shiitake mushroom and the oyster mushroom
(398.1 % and 418.3 %, respectively).  Over 86 % of the oyster production
is in China and North America produces only 0.2 % of the world
production (Table 3).  Mushroom production is highest in Asia (48.9%),
followed by Europe (34.6%) and North America with combined production of
Canada and the U.S. at 14.7% (Table 4).  The white button mushroom still
contributes over 30% of the worldwide production, and it has been
shrinking as more specialty mushrooms become available.  

	In the U.S mushrooms are widely consumed with the per capita
consumption in 2004 reported as 4.1 lb with 2.6 lb for fresh and 1.6 as
canned (USDA ERS, 2006; Buzby and Farah, 2006).  Based on the USDA CSFII
1994 – 1996, 1998 survey, using two day individual consumption
determined mushroom consumption was 1.83g/day. 

Table 2. World production of cultivated edible mushrooms in 1986 and
1997 

(ROYSE, 2002)	

Common Name and Species	Fresh weight (x 1,000 t)	Increase

	1986 	1997 	(%)

White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus)	1,227	56.2%	1,956	31.8%	59.4

Shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes)	314	14.4%	1,564	25.4%	398.1

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.)	169	7.7%	876	14.2%	418.3

Hirmeola (Auricularia spp.)	119	5.5%	485	7.9%	307.6

Chinese mushroom (Volvariella volvacea)	178	8.2%	181	3.0%	1.7

Enoki (Flammulina velutipes)	100	4.6%	285	4.6%	130

White jelly fungi (Tremella fuciformis)	40	1.8%	130	2.1%	225.0

Beech mushroom (Hypsizygus marmoreus)	— 	— 	74	1.2%	—

Nameko (Pholiota nameko)	25	1.1%	56	0.9%	124.0

Maitake (Grifola frondosa)	— 	— 	33 	0.5%	—

Others	10	0.5%	518	8.4%	5,080.0

Total	2,182	100.0%	6,158	100.0%	182.2



Table 3. Estimated fresh production of oyster mushrooms in a few
countries/regions in 1997 

(ROYSE, 2002)	

	Production

Country	1,000 m	1,000 lbs	%

China	760.0 	1,675,496 	86.8

Japan	13.3 	29,321 	1.5

Rest of Asia	88.4 	194,887 	10.1

North America	1.5 	3,307 	0.2

Latin America	0.2 	441 	—

EU	6.2 	13,668 	0.7

Rest of Europe	5.8 	12,787 	0.7

Africa	0.2 	441 	—

Total	875.6 	1,930,348 	100.0



Table 4. Mushroom production in a few countries/regions in 2004 

(FAO 2004; HYNES; NORDEN 2005c)

Countries/ regions	Area harvested	Production

Africa	NA	10,091 Mt

C. America	–	–

N. America	–	471,000 Mt

S. America	–	–

Asia	12,220 ha	1,572,077 Mt

Australia	230 ha	51,000 Mt

Europe	460 ha	1,113,115 Mt

New Zealand	41 ha	8,500 Mt

Canada	449 ha	80,000 Mt

U.S.	–	391,000 Mt

World Total	12,849 ha	3,214,071 Mt



Mushroom Production:

	Production in the U.S. is based on the USDA 2005 Agricultural
Statistics, FAO Statistics, 2005, USDA ERS 2005 Vegetables and Melons
2005 Summary, American Mushroom Institute, 2005 and the Agricultural
Census, 2002:  In 2004 - 2005, approximately 853,132,000 lb of mushrooms
was sold by 275 growers.  The Agaricus mushroom accounted for over 838
million lb or over 98% of the total sales with 2 % being specialty
mushrooms such as shiitake and oyster mushrooms.  Over 87 % of the
specialty mushrooms are shiitake.  The brown mushrooms such as
portabella and crimini are reported with the Agaricus (white button
mushroom) totals and represent 11.7% of the Agaricus sales. 
Approximately 83% of the Agaricus mushrooms are sold for the fresh
market and 17% are processed.  The total growing areas are expressed in
square feet and was 28,905,000 sq ft growing area and over 143,093,000
sq ft total fillings (crop/year) in 2004 - 2005.  Yields per square foot
averaged 5.86 lb.  Pennsylvania leads the states in production with 59 %
of the total production; followed by California at 14 % and Washington
at 1.6 % with the remainder being in several states such as Florida,
Ohio, Delaware, New York, Michigan, and Colorado.  Specialty mushrooms
are reported from 172 growers as mostly shiitake and oyster with
shiitake being 57 % of the total production (9,081,000 lb) and oyster
mushroom as 34 % (5,409,000 lb).  Canada produced over 60,137 tons of
specialty mushrooms on 73,430 sq ft.

Specific Edible Fungi Crop Production:

Blewitt:

	Blewitt was first found in Western Europe growing on hardwood trees. 
Now this decorative mushroom grows by preference on classical mushroom
compost

Beech or bunashimeji mushroom:

Native to the temperate hardwood forests of Europe, North America, and
Asia.  The Japanese are the main producers and consumers of the beech
mushroom.  Production of Bunashimeji was 22,600 tons worldwide in 1990,
and in 1997 it reached 74,200 tons, an increase of more than three-fold.
 

Chinese mushroom:

	The Chinese mushroom has been grown for many years in various
subtropical and tropical areas of Asia.  Almost 180,000 metric tons were
produced in 1986, 207,000 tons in 1991, and almost 300,000 tons in 1994.

Enoki:

	The Japanese are the major producers of this mushroom. There were
100,000 metric tons produced in 1986, but the demand for this mushroom
is growing and Japanese production in 2002 at 110,444 t.  The Enoki is
cultivated in California, Japan, and Malaysia. 

Hime-Matsutake:

	Hime-matsutake is a newly discovered species of mushroom that is
attracting the attention of many scientists in the world as well as
interest in possible medicinal uses.  Artificial cultivation of this
Brazilian mushroom was achieved for the first time in Japan.

Hirmeola:

	This common “ear fungus” is found worldwide involved in wood decay.
 It has long been used for food and is well recognized as the choice
edible “black mushroom” from the orient, because it darkens upon
drying. It has also been shown to have great medicinal value and has
drawn considerable attention in recent years.  Records of its use go
back to 200 BC in temperate hardwood forests in the world first recorded
cultivated mushroom.  Several Asian countries are now growing hirmeola
on artificial logs composed of sawdust/bran or woodchips/bran very much
in the manner shiitake and the white jelly fungi are grown.  Almost
120,000 metric tons were grown in 1986 but production had increased to
485,000 metric tons in 1997.  Production of hirmeola now represents
about 11% of the total cultivated mushroom supply worldwide.

Maitake:

	Originated from the deciduous forests of North America and eastern
Canada, as well as Japan, Asia, and Europe on oaks.  This decorative
mushroom is rapidly gaining commercial interest, not only because of its
excellent taste and firm meat, but also because of its pharmaceutical
qualities. The multi-branched fruit bodies are harvested early at a
diameter of 10 – 15 cm.  Japan is the major producer and consumer of
Maitake.  Commercial production of Maitake in Japan began in 1981 at 325
ton. Japanese production of Maitake reached 9,617 t in 1993.  US
distribution is mostly in the southeastern states. 

Morel:

Morels are some of the most highly prized mushrooms found in the wild
temperate forest areas.  Several problems have yet to be solved in the
commercial production of morels.  Solitary, scattered, clustered,
occasionally in large numbers after forest fires, or on disturbed
ground.  It has a long history of consumption in China.

Nameko:

	Nameko is uniquely recognizable for its smooth cap and glutinous veil
covering the mushroom, and they have a mild, light flavor with a slight
crunch P. nameko, known also as the viscid mushroom, is grown in Japan
and elsewhere in the Orient. Approximately, 25,000 metric tons were
produced in 1986 and 53,000 tons by 1991.  Other production regions:
Japan produced 21,738 t of P. nameko in 1991, and 24,818 t in 2002 .  

Net bearing dictyophora:

	Grown on the ground in rich soil in sheltered spots, dictyophora is a
type of mushroom called stinkhorn with white stalk and pale yellow cap,
covered with slimy spore mass; with a white lacy frill hanging from
apex. The other species of Dictyophora in Australia (D. multicolor) has
an orange cap and a pink frill with a smaller mesh frill.

Oyster mushroom:

Mushroom hunters have collected oyster mushrooms for years, but in the
past three decades it has been actively grown and marketed in several
countries. A similar species, Pleurotus floridanus, is also being grown
commercially.  Oyster mushroom production has increased at rapid rate
worldwide during the last few years.  China was responsible for most of
the production increase.  Production in U.S.: includes 476,000 sq. feet
production in U.S. and 4.2 million pounds grown in crop year 2003-2004. 
In the United States, production of oyster mushrooms was 882 t in 1994,
up 94% from the previous year.  Other production regions from 1986 to
1991, oyster mushroom production increased from 169,000 ton to 917,000
ton (a 442% increase).  Pleurotus spp. production in Japan peaked in
1989 at about 36,000 t.  Production was 24,000 t in 1993, a decrease of
33% in four years.  Japan produced 5,800 T in 2002.  Worldwide
production in 1997 was over 875,000 Mt.  

Pom pom:

The Chinese were the first to domesticate the fungus and, in 1991
production reached 66,000 t.  In Japan, the mushroom is cultivated on
synthetic substrate in bags and bottles and on logs.  Other production
regions: It is a rapidly growing industry in which almost 20,000 metric
tons were marketed in 1986 and 143,000 tons in 1991.  

Reishi mushroom:

	The reishi mushroom is widely distributed in the world including
southern US and most of Asia.  Scattered to thick in disturbed habitats,
e.g., roadsides, paths, and vacant lots, and they prefer heavy soils
like those surrounding San Francisco Bay; fruiting from mid to late
winter.  It is considered to have an excellent; substantial size, firm
texture, and good flavor for cooking.  

Rodman’s agaricus: 

	There is no specific production data, but because of its high immunity
to infections, this mushroom is considered for alternative cultivation
in infected mushroom farms. It is resistant to A. bisporus virus.  The
poor taste and the somewhat rubbery structure are minuses but the high
temperature-tolerance is a plus point.  Rodman’s agaricus is also
found scattered in disturbed habitats, such as roadsides, paths, and
vacant lots.  

Shiitake:

Shiitake has been grown for centuries in China and other oriental
countries and is still the major edible mushroom grown throughout Asia
under forest shade.  Shiitake cultivation can be traced to Wu Sang
Kwuang who was born in China during the Sung Dynasty (960-1127 AD).  It
was introduced to Japan after the World War II.  Between 1986 and 1989,
total U.S. production of shiitakes increased from 3.4 to 3.7 million
pounds.  In 1997, over 1,500,000 MT were produced worldwide with < 88%
produced in Peoples Republic of China.  According to USDA NASS 7.7
million pounds were grown in crop year 2003-2004.  Other production
regions showed 393,000 metric tons produced worldwide in 1991 with Japan
producing 64,442 t in 2002. 

Shimeji:

There is no specific production data for shimeji.  

Stropharia:

Originated in Old and New World and it is distributed to the
Mid-Atlantic States, as well as in Europe and New Zealand.  It is a
brown-rotter, is very suitable for extensive cultivation on entire straw
bales.  The mushroom grows in solitary, scattered, or extensive in
grassy areas.

Truffle

	Commercially grown truffles are Ascomycete fungi that form subterranean
fruiting bodies. Spores are thought to be disseminated through the
action of small animals feeding on the fruit bodies. The Perigord
truffle is associated with the roots of oak trees in France, both in the
wild and in cultivation. The tiny truffles, 1 inch or less in diameter,
are not easily found. They are often collected with the aid of trained
dogs and pigs who detect them by smell.  Hart's truffle (Elaphomyces) is
reported to be the most common British hypogaeous fungus and can be
collected year-round beneath the litter layers of various trees,
particularly beech.  Both white and black truffles are being cultivated
in Oregon.  

White button mushroom:

	The white button mushroom was actively cultivated in temperate regions
of Europe before the “settlers” came to North America.  There were
more than 2,000,000 metric tons produced worldwide in 1997.  Total
mushroom production in US in crop year 2003-04 was 843 million pounds,
with 31,549,000 square feet of growing area [PA (464.6 million Ibs. on
17.2 million sq. ft), CA (122.5 million Ibs. on 5 million sq. ft.), and
FL (46.7 million Ibs. on 1.5 million sq. ft.].  Average yield in U.S.
production in 2003 - 2004 was 5.77 lbs/ft2.  About 99% of the mushrooms
grown in Canada are also this species. 

White jelly fungi:

	The white jelly fungus began to be actively grown in Taiwan in the mid
1970s. Other countries including the US are developing markets for these
fungi.  In 1986 approximately 40,000 metric tons were produced, but the
industry had grown to a worldwide production of 130,000 Mt in 1997.

A comparison of EPA and NAFTA EPA Crop Production Regions are listed in
Tables 7A and 7B.  

Imports/Exports of Mushrooms: 

	Despite the U.S. being a major producer of edible fungi (Table 4)
significant amounts of mushrooms intended for the fresh and dried
mushroom market are imported.  Since mushrooms are widely imported to
the U.S. they are available on a year around basis.  The amount of a
commodity can vary widely from year to year based on differences in U.S.
production, weather effects, and consumer demand.  The USDA Foreign
Agriculture Trade Statistics (FATUS) reported that in 2005 over 3,172 MT
of fresh mushrooms were exported to other countries with Canada
receiving 94%, Japan at 2.0%, Switzerland at 1.8%; and Mexico at 0.3%. 
Imports of fresh mushrooms for 2005 were at 27,201 MT, with major
amounts coming from Canada each at 94.5%, and Peoples Republic of China
at 4.8%.  Imports of fresh truffles for 2005 (10.4 MT) came from Peoples
Republic of China at 50%, Croatia at 22%, France at 9%, Switzerland at
6%, and Italy at 5 %.  

	Approximately, 6,730 MT of frozen mushrooms were imported from the
Netherlands at 60%, Peoples Republic of China at 31%, India at 5%, Spain
and France at 0.6%, and Vietnam at 0.5%.  Imports of canned mushrooms
(63,000 MT) were from Peoples’ Republic of China at 28%, India at 21%,
Indonesia at 17%, Vietnam at 6% and Tawain, Indonesia, Malaysia,
Netherlands, and Canada at 3% each.  Imported dried Agaricus mushrooms
at 2005 were at 1,586 MT from Peoples’ Republic of China at 79%,
Republic of Korea at 11%, Japan at 4%, Chile and Italy at 1.3%, and Hong
Kong at 1.0%.  Imports of dried jelly fungi were 14.3 MT with Peoples
Republic of China at 73.4% and Taiwan at 26.6%, and dried wood ears were
at 166 MT with 98% from Peoples’ Republic of China at 98% and Taiwan
at 2%.  

COMPARISON OF CULTURAL PRACTICES: 

	The edible fungi are found throughout temperate, tropical and
subtropical climatic zone crops adapted depending upon the species to
either cool or warm temperatures.

Specific Edible Fungi Cultural Practices:

Blewitt:

	Blewitt grows by preference on classical mushroom compost, although
some growers cultivate it successfully on pasteurized straw mixtures. At
low temperatures and low CO2 concentrations, it forms big purple caps (7
– 10 cm diameter) on a firm stem.  The cap is 4-14 cm broad, convex,
margin inrolled, wavy, sometimes upturned at maturity; with a surface
smooth, moist, violet to lilac, fading to tan; flesh soft, pale-lilac;
with a fragrant odor and mild taste.  They fruit singly, widespread, or
in fairy rings under a variety of hardwoods and conifers; appearing from
late fall to mid-winter; some fruitings are occasionally seen along the
coast during the summer as a result of fog. It is edible and considered
good by many, but lacking somewhat in texture.  Local material varies
greatly in taste, from quite good to very poor.  It is probably the San
Francisco Bay area’s most common edible mushroom fruiting abundantly
in urban parks and to a lesser extent in natural habitats. 
Lilac-colored mycelium is often found at the base of blewitts. 

Beech or Bunashimeji mushroom:

	The bunashimeji is usually produced in polypropylene bottles contained
in plastic trays. After the completion of vegetative mycelial growth,
bottle lids are removed and the colonized substrate subjected to
environmental conditions known to stimulate fruiting, and they are kept
at 60F at a relative humidity of 95% until harvest.  The growth of beech
mushrooms is similar to growing enokis.  When the mushrooms are mature,
the entire cluster of fruiting bodies is removed from the bottles.  The
mushrooms are packaged by placing an entire cluster (or multiple
clusters) into each over-wrapped package.  Only one flush of mushrooms
is harvested prior to mechanical removal of the "spent" substrate from
the bottles. The bottles then are refilled with fresh substrate and the
process is repeated.  They are slow growing and may take over 100 days
from spawn to harvest.  

Chinese mushroom:

	The Chinese mushroom usually grows on piles of decaying rice straw,
sawdust, coffee pulp, sugar-cane bagasse, oil palm or extraction wastes.
 The mycelium grows outward towards the sunlight, which stimulates the
growth of small nodules called pinheads.  Within two to three days the
color changes from white to black, then to brown, and gradually fades as
the mushrooms grow larger.  There are, however, some strains that are
dark brown or black.  They may be chestnut or egg-shaped.  Research has
been done on growing mushrooms under natural or field conditions using
rice straw or banana leaves as bedding material.  Higher yields have
been obtained by using a mixture of cotton waste supplemented with wheat
bran and calcium carbonate, composted for 3 days, pasteurized for 2 hr,
cooled, then inoculated with spawn and grown at 77 F.  They are grown
inside on beds similar to our button mushrooms.  This mushroom does not
sporulate as prolifically on compost as the button mushrooms, but the
cultural practices are similar.  During harvest, the mushrooms must be
carefully pulled out whole from the bed.  Any portion left behind will
decay and permit bacterial soft-rot to spread in the succeeding crops,
causing a drastic reduction in yield.  Timing from spawn to harvest is
about 2 – 3 weeks.  

Enoki:

	The enoki is a fragile, flower-like mushroom with long, slender stems
and tiny caps that grow in small clusters and resemble bean sprouts. 
They have a mild, light flavor with a slight crunch.  This mushroom is a
recent arrival to the commercial mushroom scene.  The cultivated
product, which is grown in the dark to produce long, slender, pale
stipes and tiny caps, bears little resemblance to wild material.  They
are long stemmed (4 – 5 inches) and caped (1/3 – 1/2 in) and white
in color.  Enoki mushrooms are grown on sawdust/bran (4:1 ratio), much
like shiitakes and oyster mushrooms.  They are grown in reusable
polypropylene bottles at 42F and 75 – 85% humidity.  The spawn run is
from 20 - 30 days at 72-77 oF, but they differ from most other
commercial mushrooms in that they fruit at temperatures of 50 - 55 oF. 
Thus, a crop of enoki mushrooms can be produced within 4 - 8 weeks and
only one set of fruiting bodies are produced /cropping cycle.  

Hime-matsutake:

	It is a newly discovered species of mushroom that is attracting the
attention of many scientists in the world.  Artificial cultivation of
this Brazilian mushroom was achieved for the first time in Japan.  It
may also have use as a medicinal medicine.  

Hirmeola:

	This common “ear fungus” is found worldwide involved in wood decay.
 It has long been used for food and is well recognized as the choice
edible “black mushroom” from the orient, because it darkens upon
drying.  It has also been shown to have great medicinal value.  It is
commonly produced on synthetic medium that consists of sawdust, cotton
seed hulls, and cereal grain bran.  Several Asian countries are now
growing hirmeola on artificial logs composed of sawdust/bran or
woodchips/bran very much in the manner like shiitake and the white jelly
fungi are grown.  It is the first recorded cultivated mushroom.
Auricularia spp. production now represents about 11% of the total
cultivated mushroom supply worldwide.  When fresh, the ear-like shaped
gelatinous texture of the flabby fruiting body’s upper surface is
elastic, veined or ribbed, with fine silky hairs, brownish-red, brown to
blackish-brown.  Inner or underside surface is lighter colored, smooth
and pubescent.  When dried it is hard and brittle, but regains its
original state when being rehydrated.  It is commonly produced on a
synthetic medium consisting of sawdust, cotton seed hulls, bran, and
other cereal grains or on natural logs of broad-leaf trees.  For
cultivation on natural logs, members of the oak family are preferred,
but many other species of both hard and softwoods may be used.  

Maitake:

	This decorative mushroom is rapidly gaining commercial interest, not
only because of its excellent taste and firm meat, but also because of
its pharmaceutical qualities.  The multi-branched fruit bodies are
harvested early at a diameter of 10 – 15 cm.  It is a soft-fleshed
polypore that develops from gray mounds, and the fruiting body is
composed of multiple, overlapping caps arising from branching stems. 
They have a mild, light flavor.  Most maitake is marketed as food, and
powdered fruitbodies are used in the production of many health foods
such as Maitake tea, whole powder, granules, drinks, and tablets. 
Maitake is grown on compost containing 80% hardwood, 10% cereals, and
10% bran and grown at 62 - 63 % humidity and it is inoculated with ± 1%
spawn, at room temperature 23 °C.  Average yield is approximately, 150
g saleable mushrooms per kg fresh substrate.  Commercial production of
most maitake is on synthetic substrate contained in polypropylene
bottles or bags.  A common substrate used for production is composed of
sawdust supplemented with rice bran or wheat bran in a 5:1 ratio. 
Anoher substrate developed in the U.S. consists of oak sawdust (70%);
wheat bran (10%); millet (10%), and rye (10%).  For bottle production,
the containers are filled with moistened substrate and sterilized or
pasteurized prior to inoculation, and only one crop is produced/crop. 
Most growers use automated inoculation equipment thereby saving on labor
costs. For production in bags, the moistened substrate is filled into
microfiltered polypropylene bags and sterilized to kill unwanted
competitive microorganisms.  After cooling (16 to 20 h), the substrate
is inoculated and the bags are heat sealed and shaken to uniformly
distribute the spawn throughout the substrate.  Spawn run lasts about 30
to 60 days depending on strain and substrate formulation.  Temperatures
then are lowered from about 22° to 14°C to induce fruiting and
fruitbody maturation. 

Morel:

	Morels are some of the most highly prized mushrooms found in the wild. 
Commercial cultivation involves the production of sclerotia, an early
overwintering stage of the mushroom.  Several problems have yet to be
solved in the commercial production of morels.  They are found naturally
either solitary, scattered, clustered, occasionally in large numbers
after forest fires, or on disturbed ground.  The surface of the hollow
cap (pileus) is honeycombed, ridged and pitted.  The caps shape is oval
or elliptic, and obtuse or bluntly conical and can reach from 4 to 9 cm
in height, and is 3 to 5 cm thick with a pale-brown to yellowish-red
color.  The stalk is tinged white from 5 to 8 cm in length, and 2.5 to 4
cm thick with a smooth or wrinkled surface and the base slightly turgid
and hollow.  Morels are cultivated with "Nutrient primed" sclerotia are
produced in soil placed on a layer of sterilized wheat or rye grain. 
The production of nutrient primed sclerotia requires about 18 to 21 days
under optimum conditions.  The sclerotia are harvested, soaked in clean
water for 24 hours and distributed into a thin layer of pasteurized
bark/soil mix.  The sclerotia germinate via the production of mycelium. 
After the mycelium has spread throughout the soil mix, a continuous (12
to 36 hour) fine mist of clean water is provided to stimulate the
formation of ascocarps

Nameko:

		Nameko is uniquely recognizable for its smooth cap and glutinous veil
covering the mushroom.  Unlike the shiitake, nameko can be grown on both
hardwood and conifer sawdust or chips.  Nameko mushrooms are either
log-grown, much like shiitake, or on a sawdust/bran compost pasteurized
in bags.  Preparation of the medium for nameko production is similar to
that for enoki except that the substrate has higher moisture content. 
Rice bran usually is added as a supplement in the ratio of 15% for
conifer sawdust and 10% for broadleaf sawdust.  Mushrooms are harvested
from the substrate by cutting the stems near the base with scissors. The
harvested mushrooms are washed and packed for shipment to market. 

Net bearing dictyophora:

		The net bearing dictyophora is grown on the ground in rich sheltered
spots, and in managed forest areas on logs.  It has a white stalk and
pale yellow cap, covered with slimy spore mass; with a white lacy frill
hanging from apex.  It is in China that this mushroom is most known. 
The other species of Dictyophora in Australia (D. multicolor) has an
orange cap and a pink frill with a smaller mesh.  The stalk is up to 180
mm tall, white and spongy with a conical cap covered in a slimy, spore
bearing mass with the odour of rotting flesh.  The egg stage or button
can be up to 40 mm in diameter.  The skirt under the pileus flares out
when the fruiting body is mature and is 4 to 22 cm long with openings
ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 cm which gives the skirt a netted appearance. 
Harvest in forest logs may be obtained after 3 - 4 years and when grown
on bamboo wood chips harvest may be in 1 – 2 years.  Indoor
cultivation on a wood substrate requires high moisture conditions and
they can be grown in a tray system similar to the white button mushroom.
 On harvested batch of net bearing dictyophora weighs 20 – 50 g and
amounts of 600 g (12 – 30 bunches) are placed together in a bag and
boxed, it is valued up to $ 100/kg.  

Oyster mushroom:

		Mushroom hunters have collected oyster mushrooms for years, but in the
past 3 decades it has been actively grown and marketed in several
countries.  A similar species, P. floridanus, is also being grown
commercially.  Oyster mushroom production has increased at rapid rate
world-wide during the last few years.  China was responsible for most of
the production increase.  Oyster mushrooms range in color from soft
brown to gray, blue, to yellow to pink.  They grow in clusters or
individually.  Fan-shaped cap 5 - 25 cm broad and form overlapping
shelves or clusters on stumps and logs of hardwoods, uncommon on
conifers, from early fall to mid- winter.  Oyster mushrooms can be grown
on a variety of substrates.  Chopped cereal straw with 75% moisture is
commonly used as substrate in the U.S. whereas most oriental growers use
4:1 hardwood sawdust and rice bran.  Spawn run requires 10-14 days at 78
- 84 F and pin set can occur at 55 - 60 F within one to two weeks
afterwards.  Regular misting daily is needed until fruitbodies are
mature and light misting is needed to prevent cracking of the caps. 
Spawning to first harvest is about 3 to 6 weeks.  In the U.S. the
primary ingredients used for Pleurotus spp. production is chopped wheat
straw or cottonseed hulls or mixtures thereof.  Production of Pleurotus
spp. on cotton seed hulls has some advantages over straw-based
production systems in that chopping of the hulls is not required.  In
Japan, bottle production of oyster mushrooms is most common, and it is
increasing in popularity in the US.  Substrate is filled into bottles,
sterilized and inoculated with Pleurotus spawn. Upon completion of spawn
run, bottle lids are removed and mushroom emerge from the surface of the
substrate.  After the mushrooms are harvested they are weighed and
packaged for shipment to market

Pom pom:

	The Chinese were the first to domesticate this fungus and it is
typically white until aged then becoming yellow brown.  The flavor is
reminiscent of lobster or eggplant.  Only within the last decade have
Hericium erinaceus, the bear’s head fungus, and H. coralloides, the
monkey’s head fungus, been grown commercially.   They are grown much
like the enoki on sterile hardwood sawdust with rice bran supplement
inside of wide-mouth plastic bottles.  In the wild it grows on old logs
and stumps and on wounds of living trees, especially on maple, beech,
oak, and hickory.  The fruiting body is formed as a large white mass (5
to 30 cm across) that is toothed in many small tufts.  In Japan, the
mushroom is cultivated on synthetic substrate in bags and bottles and on
logs.

Reishi mushroom:

	The reishi mushroom has a large fruiting body up to 5 – 15 cm in
diameter and is 0.8 - 1 cm thickness.  The fungus has a shinny dark red
colored surface and white to dark colored tissue.  This fungus is a
longstanding, widespread object of legend and folklore in the oriental
tradition.  This species is now becoming a cash crop in Japan and
elsewhere because of its medicinal properties. Most cultivation is on
sawdust in heat resistant polypropylene bottles.  Substrates include
sawdust, wheat bran, cane sugar, corn cobs, gypsum, and soybean powder. 
It is often too tough to be used as a food, but tea and a number of food
supplements are made from species of Ganoderma.  Various commercial
lines of tablets and capsules based on reishi are now available at
health food stores everywhere.  

Rodman’s agaricus:

	This edible fungus prefers heavy soils like those in the surrounding
San Francisco Bay; and fruits from mid to late winter.  Because of its
high immunity to infections, this mushroom is considered for alternative
cultivation in infected mushroom farms.  It is resistant to A. bisporus
virus and moreover hardly sensitive to illnesses.  The poor taste and
the somewhat rubbery structure are minuses but the high
temperature-tolerance is a plus point.  Its cap is 5 - 15 cm broad,
convex, becoming broadly so in age, sometimes expanding with an upturned
margin; surface smooth, whitish, often with adhering dirt; flesh white,
thick, firm, unchanging; odor and taste mild.  The gills are free,
close, pallid, becoming pale brown, blackish-brown at maturity.  Stipe
is 4-10 cm long, 2-4 cm thick, stout, equal to enlarged below, solid;
surface whitish, more or less smooth, sometimes with fine, appressed
scales at the apex; veil membranous, thick, white, sheathing from the
base of the stipe.  It is cultivated on substrate at inoculation in
traditional or synthetic Agaricus-compost.  Requires about 69-71%
humidity and is inoculated at 7 liter spawn/ton.  The compost
temperature of 28-30 °C is needed for 13-15 days.  Production cycle
from the end of incubation is 5 to 10 weeks.  Average yield 27 – 32
kg/ m² at a fill weight of 90 kg/ m² fully grown compost. 

Shiitake:

	Shiitake has been grown for centuries in China and other oriental
countries and is still the major edible mushroom grown throughout Asia. 
Shiitake gets its common name from its hardwood host, species of the
genus Pisania, the “shii” tree, a member of the oak family with
hundreds of species throughout Asia.  The Japanese name for mushroom is
“take”, thus the name shiitake, the mushroom that grows on shii
trees.  While small scale cultivation of shiitakes had been going on for
centuries, successful large-scale cultivation began in the 1940s in
Japan with the development of new techniques for inoculation.  Shiitakes
traditionally have been cultivated on notched logs inoculated with spawn
and stacked in evergreen forests.  There are approximately fifty farmers
in Florida now growing shiitake mushrooms.  Shiitakes range in color
from tan to dark brown with broad, umbrella-shaped caps, wide-open veils
and tan gills.  Shiitake caps have a soft, spongy texture and are two to
five inches in diameter.  When cooked, Shiitake mushrooms are rich and
woodsy with a meaty texture.  For mass production of spawn several
inoculation sites are drilled into freshly cut hardwood logs. Spawn is
added and sealed with wax or styrofoam plugs.  The inoculated logs
incubated for 4 - 5 months in a cool, shaded area.  Water is applied
periodically.  Shiitakes grown in Florida have seasonal crops and to
induce sporulation, some growers place inoculated logs in feed troughs,
cover with water, add ice and let it soak overnight.  Harvested
mushrooms are then air-dried, sorted, bagged and placed on the market. 
Shiitakes can be grown on artificial logs composed of sawdust
supplemented with millet and wheat or rice bran.  Synthetic logs may
produce three or four times as many mushrooms as the natural logs, and
in one-tenth of the time.  The seeding of spawn to first harvest for
shiitake on natural logs is about 8 to 14 months and on artificial logs
about 9 to 14 weeks.

Shimeji:

Shimeji is usually sold fresh, and these small mushrooms have an
appealing dimple in their concave cap as if someone has pushed down on
that point to attach it to its stem.  They are light gray to fawn in
color, and they are rarely more than 4 cm (1 1/2 in) in diameter with a
delicate texture and flavor 

Stropharia:

	Stropharia is a small, cream to pale yellowish-buff mushroom that is
distinguished by a moist cap, and annulus with prominent striations on
the upper surface, the latter often tinged purple with spores.  It
superficially resembles an Agaricus species, but lacks the
characteristic free gills.  The cap is 2 - 5 cm broad and rounded;
surface is smooth with pale yellow-buff color, but darkening to
grayish-purple at maturity.  Flesh is white, firm, thick at the disc,
and thin at its margin.  The fruiting body has a faintly sweet and mild
taste and the stipe is 1.5 – 4.5 cm tall, 4 – 7 mm thick, solid, and
stuffed at maturity.  It is very suitable for extensive cultivation on
entire straw bales.  The mushroom also grows in grass.  It also fruits
spring summer and fall in watered areas, less common during the winter
months.  The recommended substrate is straw and it is inoculated in a
mix with ± 2% spawn.   Fruiting conditions are room temperature at
10-20 °C; relative humidity requires 80 - 85 %.  The mushroom can be
grown to large size and weight up to 5 lb.  Total production cycle is 4
– 5 months with an average yield 130-150 g saleable mushroom per kg of
fresh substrate. 

Truffle

	Commercially grown truffles are ascomycete fungi that form subterranean
fruiting bodies.  They are discomycetes of the order Tuberales, more
specifically T. melanosporum (the Perigord truffle) and T. magnatum (the
white truffle of the Piedmont), and a number of other species.  The
common British truffle species are T. rufum, T. puberulum, and T.
excavatum.  The fruiting bodies are globe shaped, up to 1 inch in
diameter. In cross section they consist of an outer covering of
thick-walled cells, and a central fertile part, traversed by dark veins
that represent the spore-bearing surface (hymenium).  Unlike many common
mushrooms that have external hymenia, the truffle's hymenium is not open
to the outside and the spores are not discharged violently.  Spores are
thought to be disseminated through the action of small animals feeding
on the fruit bodies.  The Perigord truffle is associated with the roots
of oak trees in France, both in the wild and in cultivation.  These tiny
truffles, 1 inch or less in diameter, are not easily found. They are
often collected with the aid of trained dogs and pigs who detect them by
smell.  Hart's truffle is reported to be the most common British
hypogaeous fungus and can be collected year-round beneath the litter
layers of various trees, particularly the beech.  For cultivation, wild
oak trees are moved to the production area, and soil from beneath the
trees where truffles were found is placed near the transplanted tree
roots.  Crops of truffles develop after about 7 years and are gathered
by raking the soil under the trees. 

White button mushroom:

	The mushrooms which are the fruiting bodies of the fungi, first appear
at the soil surface about 5 or more weeks after seeding with spawn, and
continue to appear in flushes.  The terms flush, break, or bloom are
applied to crops of mushroom that mature from every 3 to 5 days.  They
are usually harvested by cutting off the cap with a small portion of the
stem before the caps have become fully expanded.  Beds produce the main
crops in the first 40 days after fruiting starts, but may be retained
with light production for several months.  Agaricus bisporus includes
both brown and white skinned types.  The brown skinned cultivars include
the Italian forms as Crimini (button stage) and the Portobello (cap
fully open to 8 inches in diameter).  Criminis are grown and harvested
in the same manner as the white button and Portobello mushroom. 
Portobellos are 3 – 7 times older then the criminis when harvested and
they are essentially a large crimini.  The time from seeding spawn to
first harvest is about 5 to 7 weeks with flushing intervals at 7 - 10
days.  The time from from spawn seeding to first harvest about 5 - 7
weeks.  There are six basic steps employed in the commercial production
of the common button mushrooms.  They are composting, finishing the
compost, spawning, and casing, pinning, and cropping until harvest. 
Mushrooms are harvested usually in a 7-10 day cycle.  Several flushes
can be produced from each composted tray and harvests may continue from
35-40 days.  The Monterey Mushroom Farm north of Apopka, FL usually
harvests 4 - 5 flushes, finding any later flushes to be limited in the
number of mushrooms produced and requiring growth rooms that can be used
from early flushes.  Temperatures are held from 57 - 62° F and the
relative humidity is high to prevent drying of the mature mushrooms. 
Button mushrooms grow better without light, and even subdued light is
used during harvesting. After the final flush of mushrooms has been
picked, the large wooden trays are removed, the compost is pasteurized,
and the spent compost is bagged and sold as compost for homeowners.  The
growth rooms are then pasteurized with steam and new pinned trays are
brought in for a new cycle of flushes.  Each growth room will hold
approximately 300 trays.  It takes approximately 15 weeks to complete an
entire production cycle beginning with compost preparation to steaming
of harvested rooms.  Production is year-round with 7 - 10 days flushing
intervals.  There are usually 4 to 5 fillings per mushroom house per
year, with a total area of 146,344,000 square feet

White jelly fungi:

	The white jelly fungus began to be actively grown in Taiwan in the mid
1970s.  Other countries are developing markets for these fungi.  White
jelly fungi were originally grown on hardwood logs much like log-grown
shiitakes. Many people prefer the white jelly fungi to other edible
species.  The fruiting body is a mass of white, translucent gelatinous
fungal material.  It may form convoluted or lobed folds.  As it dries,
it shrinks to almost nothing and it is usually 3 - 15cm across.  The
spores are borne on the upright lobes, not on gills and it has no pileus
or stipe.  It grows on wood, though usually in association with a
"companion fungus" such as species of the black Ascomycete, Hypoxylon. 
The companion fungus degrades the wood, preparing it for the Tremella.
T. fuciformis and it has been used as a delicacy food in China for many
years.  This mushroom can be cultivated on natural logs or on synthetic
medium.  Cultivation techniques used to produce the mushroom on natural
logs is similar to that used for shiitake production.  In recent years,
most production of T. fuciformis has been on synthetic substrate using a
mixed culture inoculum technique first developed in Fujian, China much
like the oyster mushroom.  The mixed culture technique involves the use
of "helper" mycelium of Hypoxylon archeri, an ascomycete commonly
associated in nature with decaying wood and it increases the ability of
T. fuciformis to digest the substrate thereby increasing mushroom
yields.  Exploitation of this mycelial association is accomplished
through use of dual cultures to make mother spawn.  Substrate used for
mushroom production is the same as that used for spawn production.  The
supplemented substrate is packed into plastic bags (50 cm long; 9 cm
diameter) and ends of the bags are tied with cotton string.  Six holes
(1 cm diam) then are punched in the filled bags and covered with a
breathable fabric.  The substrate is sterilized for 6 to 8 h, cooled and
inoculated with the mother culture.  After about 30 days of vegetative
mycelial growth, the hole covers are removed and the exposed substrate
is exposed to conditions favorable for primordia formation.  If optimum
conditions are maintained in the growing houses, clusters of jelly
fungus should be ready for harvest within 12 to 15 days. Yield for each
bag of substrate is in the range of 350 to 500 g fresh weight (35 to 50
g dry weight).

HARVESTING OF THE EDIBLE FUNGI AND CROP TIMELINES:

	Mushrooms are produced in trays or fixed shelves called beds that are
filled with compost inside buildings called mushroom houses.  The
standard production room contains 8000 ft2 of producing surface and it
is called a ‘double’; average production is 5.8 lbs ft2 (fresh
weight) per crop cycle.  Mushroom production involves four several
carefully controlled practices: (1) composting, (2) spawning or spawn
run, (3) casing, (4) pinning and (4) harvesting.  Mushrooms develop from
the pinheads in growth cycles or breaks.  During a break many mushrooms
develop more or less at the same time.  Mushrooms are harvested with
hand labor.  Mushrooms are harvested by hand and are picked before the
cap becomes soft.  Harvesting rates vary from 30 to 80 lb/hour depending
upon bed size and mushroom size.  Workers should wear masks to protect
against inhaling too many spores especially with the oyster mushroom. 
Some recent developments may improve mushroom harvesting.  One is use of
picking lines in which trays are transported to the pickers where there
is good lighting to pick at the best quality.  Second is the carrying of
trays by a fork-lift from the cropping area to a destacker at the end of
the line which passes the trays along a conveyor system to allow pickers
to work on both sides of the trays.  Another development may be
mechanical harvesting by a machine that can pass over the trays and cut
the mushrooms just over the casing layer, and places them along one side
of the tray.  

	Most mushroom farmers harvest a crop for 60 days and the harvest can go
on for up to 150 days.  Generally, the white button mushroom crop takes
a total of 90 days with up to four crops/year. Each production room is
occupied by a crop for 10 to 12 weeks which means 4 - 5 crops can be
grown in a room each year.  Button mushrooms are picked before the stem
elongates and the veil on the cap breaks open.  The button mushrooms are
picked by gripping the cap and bending or twisting to break off the
stipe at its base.  Closed mushrooms have better shelf life.  Crimini
(brown mushrooms) are also picked prior to stem elongation and breaking
of the veil.  Portabellas are thinned during the mushroom initiation
stage and the stems are allowed to elongate and the caps open. 
Portabellas are also harvested like the white button mushroom. 
Mycelium’s sends up mushrooms called a flush or break and occurs every
7 – 12 days.  The second flush usually has the highest yield.  Trays
may be picked for 2 - 4 breaks depending on the grower; the number of
pesticide applications per unit per year can be high.  The average white
button mushroom yield was about 5.75 lb/sq ft with yields ranging as
high as 8 lb/sq ft.  Normal production at a modern plant is 20,000
pounds a day.  To achieve a snow white mushroom they are washed after
harvesting.  Once washed a preservative such as sodium bisulfate is
added to prevent browning.  When the mushroom house is depleted the crop
is terminated and the production room is steam pasteurized, cleaned out
and prepared for another filling.  The spent compost is also pasteurized
to avoid contaminating other farms.  The spent mushroom substrate (SMS)
or compost (SMC) is high in organic matter and often used for mulch or
it is spread on newly seeded lawns or to increase organic matter in
agricultural fields.  

CROP ROTATIONS:

	Members of the Edible fungi group are not rotated to other crops.  The
common button mushroom is cultivated in mushroom houses or caves and the
spawn used to produce them is replaced yearly, but the same crop is
grown each year in the same location.  Shiitake mushrooms were grown on
artificially inoculated logs and maintained in forested areas for three
to six years.  Newer techniques allow shiitake production under indoor
conditions similar to other cultivated mushrooms.  Oyster mushrooms are
also grown indoors using cultural practices similar to the white button
mushroom. 

COMPARISON OF RAW AGRICULTURAL COMMODITY (RAC), EDIBLE PORTIONS, AND
PROCESSED FOOD ITEMS:

		Mushrooms are usually entirely edible with the caps and stems edible. 
All of the edible fungi are eaten fresh or they can be processed by
drying, canning, pickling, or freezing.  Some of the mushrooms like
truffle or porcini are added to cooking oils.  Specialty mushrooms in
Japan and China are sold fresh, dried, or processed.  Large portabellas
can be marketed as the meat substitute “mushroom steaks”.  Most
maitake is marketed as food, and their powdered fruiting bodies are used
in the production of many health foods such as Maitake tea, whole
powder, granules, drinks, and tablets.  

	USDA Marketing Standards:

	Mushroom maturity is determined by how much the veil is open exposing
the gills and not by the size.  Open veils means that the caps have
expanded to expose the gills under the caps of the mushrooms.  The USDA
Agricultural Marketing Service (USDA AMS) has established standards for
marketing mushrooms and canned mushrooms.  The U.S. No.1 consists of
fresh mushrooms of similar varietal characteristic free from defects and
no open veils.  Sizes are specified in diameter with small to medium
being < 1 5/8 inches (< 3.2 mm) and large being > 1 5/8 inch (> 3.2 mm)
diameter.  The U.S. No. 2 has the same sizes but allow for more open
veils.  Standards 

for canned mushrooms are established based on color (white, cream, or
brown), styles like sliced, whole, or stems and pieces, and size.  

		According to Table 1 of the EPA Residue Chemistry Guidelines (OPPTS
860.1000), the RAC for mushroom is the cap and stem and there are no
processed commodities required for mushrooms.  Many of the mushrooms can
be dried and sold in the dried state to be rehydrated with water for
cooking.  Large quantities of mushrooms that are not sold fresh are
canned in glass jars or metal cans.  Mushrooms to be sold canned in
brine are harvested at the tight-cap stage when the veils are still
closed.  More mature mushrooms are utilized as chopped, sliced or in
soups.  The mushrooms are taken to the cannery with the bottom end of
the stipe either cut or uncut.  At the cannery the soiled ends are
removed mechanically.  The trimmed mushrooms are dumped into a large vat
of water to remove any soil, and then moved through a spray washer. 
They are size graded before blanching.  The mushrooms received a
combined soaking in water 10 - 16°C for 20 minutes followed by 18 hr
cold storage 2C and a two hour second soaking prior to blanching. 
Boiling water or stem can be used for blanching, and the blanching times
are adjusted for an internal temperature of 82°C.  They are immediately
cooled by water spray and soaked in cooling water.  Next the cooled
mushrooms will go through a size-grading machine to be placed into cans.
 For sauce type mushrooms they are cooked with other ingredients before
being packed into cans.  Mushrooms packed into brine are placed in cans
with hot brine, and ascorbic acid may be used.  Mushrooms are then
thermal processed under pressure because they are a low acid food. 
Small portions of Agaricus mushrooms are frozen or freeze-dried.  These
mushrooms are also washed and often high chlorine levels are used.  They
receive a short blanch time and frozen rapidly.  The final moisture
content is < 3 %.  From 12 kg of raw mushrooms 1 kg of freeze-dried
product is obtained, after reconstitution 1 kg of freeze-dried product
yields 8 kg of reconstituted product.  Mushrooms are also dried with
artificial heat, and most of these are either the button mushroom or the
shiitake mushroom.  Approximate weights and processed yields of Edible
fungi are as follows: Mushroom fresh – one lb whole = 6 cups of slices
= 3 ¾ cups chopped = 3 oz drained mushrooms.  Morels are sold dried 1
oz dried approx ½ lb rehydrated and 1 lb = 6 – 8 lb.  Generally all
packaged mushrooms have been washed and the mushrooms sold loose have
not been washed.

LIVESTOCK FEED ITEMS: 

	There are no significant animal feed items associated with any of the
proposed members of the edible fungi group.  Therefore, since there are
no animal feed items there is no reasonable expectation of residues in
meat, milk, poultry, or eggs. 

PEST PROBLEMS (Developed from USDA Crop Profiles, Extension Bulletins,
and Research Literature :

	Members of the Edible fungi crop group have similarities in plant
biology such as their fruiting structures and cultural practices, they
are likely to encounter similar pest problems, and hence have similar
needs for pest control products with similar use patterns.  Major pest
species include insects such as Sciarid flies (major insect pest at
present), Phorid flies, and Cecid flies, pygmy mites; diseases such as
Verticillium or dry bubble or brown spot disease, bacterial blight,
Trichoderma green mold, and Dactylium or cobweb diseases; weedy molds
such as lipstick mold, brown mold, yellow mold, indicator molds such as
ink cap fungi (Coprinus spp.) and olive green mold, bacterial diseases
such as bacterial brown and ginger blotch, bacterial pit, mummy and
false mummy; nematodes; and viral diseases such as “X” disease. 
Trichoderma green mold is a more recent hard to control mushroom pest. 
The flies must be controlled since they are also vectors of diseases. 
All of these pests can cause major yield and quality losses.

	The mushroom industry has developed several integrated pest management
practices in growing mushrooms (Royse, 2002) that manipulate the
cultural practices to effect the growing environments to help avoid pest
problems.  The cultural practices include proper composting to avoid
pest fungi; pasteurization of the compost, and temperature and humidity
controls; shortening crop growing cycles to reduce pest populations; and
sanitation of the mushroom houses.  The growing rooms are steam
pasteurized at the end of each crop cycle.  Both biological and
conventional pesticides are needed to improve the IPM programs.  Pest
control problems are essential to improve the yield and quality of
mushrooms.  

COMPARISON OF POTENTIAL RESIDUE LEVELS:

	Magness, Markle, and Compton in 1971 classified food and feed crops
based on predicting the potential for pesticide residues based on
exposure of the edible parts to applied pesticides, which led to the
development of crop groups.  Mushrooms were classified in Vegetable Crop
Category VII based on having their edible parts fully exposed to
pesticide residues applied during the growing season.  Therefore, based
on the exposure and cultural practices, one would expect pesticide
residues to be similar in the proposed members of the edible fungi crop
group  

A comparison of established tolerances for the proposed commodities of
the Edible fungi crop group comparing the US with the EU, Codex, Canada,
and Australia is in Table 5.  There are twelve tolerances established in
the U.S. on mushrooms.  

Table 5. Tolerances on mushrooms in the US, EU, Codex, Canada, and
Australia

 (FASONLINE; DUGGAN 2005a; FUNK; HYNES; NORDEN 2005d; O’TOOLE; RINKER
2005b)    

Chemical	Commodity	US	EU	Codex	Canada	Australia

Azaconazole	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.1

Benomyl	Mushroom	10	1	–	5	10

Carbendazim	Mushroom	–	–	–	5	10

Chlofenvinphos	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.05

Chlofenvinphos-methyl	Mushroom	–	–	0.01	–	–

Chlorothalonil	Mushroom	1	2	–	1	–

Cypermethrin	Mushroom	–	–	0.05	–	–

Cyromazine	Mushroom	1	5	5	8	–

DDT	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	1

Deltamethrin	Mushroom	–	–	0.01	–	–

Diazinon	Mushroom	0.75	0.02	–	–	0.7

Dichlorvos	Mushroom	0.5	0.1	0.5	–	0.5

Diflubenzuron	Mushroom	0.2	–	0.1	–	0.1

Ethylened bisdithiocarbamate fungicides	Mushroom	–	–	–	7	3

Fenamiphos	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.1

Fipronil	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.02

Lindane	Mushroom	–	–	–	3	21

Malathion	Mushroom	8	3	–	8	2

Methoxychlor	Mushroom	–	–	–	14	–

Methyl bromide	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.05

Nicotene	Mushroom	–	–	–	2	–

Permethrin	Mushroom	6	0.05	0.1	–	2

Phosphine	Mushroom	0.01	–	–	–	0.01

Pirimiphos-methyl	Mushroom	–	–	5	–	–

Prochloraz	Mushroom	–	–	2	–	3

Propiconazole	Mushroom	0.1	0.05	–	–	0.05

Quintozene	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	10

(S)-methoprene	Mushroom	–	–	–	0.05	–

Thiabendazole	Mushroom	40	10	–	–	0.5

Triflumuron	Mushroom	–	–	–	–	0.1

Thiophanate-methyl	Mushroom	0.01	–	–	5	10



REQUIRED NUMBER OF CROP FIELD TRIALS FOR THE EDIBLE FUNGI CROP GROUP 21
AND COMPARISON OF EPA CROP PRODUCTION REGIONS WITH THE NAFTA CROP
PRODUCTION REGIONS:

Mushroom production is expressed in square feet and not in acres. 
Current EPA guidelines request three trials (OPPTS 180.1500), and
updated 2005 production (sq ft) has not changed significantly from 1998.
 A reevaluation of crop production data from the USDA Agricultural
Census shows that the new Edible fungi crop group 21 will not require
additional field trials.  The required number of crop field trials for
the Crop group 21 Edible fungi is shown in Table 6.  

Table 6.  Required Number of Field Trials for Crop Group 21 Edible fungi
(40 CFR 180.41) [OPPTS 860.1500, Table 2). 

Representative Commodity	Number of Field Trials for Commodities if Not
Part of the Crop Group	Number of Field Trials for Commodities as Part of
the Crop Group

White button mushroom	 3	 2

Oyster or Shiitake mushroom	 3	 1



A comparison of the EPA (Table 7A) and NAFTA (Table 7B) Crop Productions
is listed below for the Edible fungi group 21.  The current EPA
guidelines do not list mushrooms, since the numbers of field trials are
< 3.  The EPA regions listed below are based on the 2002 AG Census. 
Region I accounts for 40.1% of the production, Region X for 19%, Region
XI for 3.1%, and Region V for 1.5%.  

Table 7A.  EPA Crop Production Regions for the Edible Fungi Group. 

 Representative Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	11	12

White button mushroom*	X



X



	X	X

	Oyster mushroom**













Shiitake mushroom**













* Residue data for white button mushroom is a required representative
commodity.

** A choice between residue data for oyster or shiitake mushroom is
allowed. 

Table 7B.  NAFTA Field Production Regions for the Edible Fungi Group.

  Representative Commodities (*) for the Crop Group.

Commodity	1	1a	2	3	4	5	5a	5b	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	14

Mushroom*	X	X





X





X





The EPA and NAFTA Regions are closely aligned and most mushrooms are
grown in enclosed locations that have strict cultural practice and
environmental growing conditions.  The NAFTA Regions are currently being
updated, and any regional differences may be lessened with the new
update.  Any conflict in testing between regions can generally be
resolved by having the ChemSAC review the test protocol regions before
residue trials are initiated and any differences can be resolved by the
International Crop Grouping Consulting Committee (ICGCC).  

AVAILABILITY AND STORAGE LIFE OF THE EDIBLE FUNGI CROP GROUP MEMBERS IN
THE MARKETPLACE:

Mushrooms are available year round with production from California,
Illinois, Pennsylvania and Canada (see the Imports of mushroom section).
 Specific food uses for the edible fungi are discussed under the
Comparison of raw agricultural commodity (RAC), edible portions, and
processed food item section of this report.  

	In general the edible fungi have a relatively short storage time for
the fresh marketplace (See Table 8).  Typical shelf life for most
varieties is from five to seven days, with shiitake and enoki up to 14
days; portabellas 10 – 14 days and fresh cut 4 to 6 days.  

Table 8. Approximate Storage Life of Edible Fungi in Commercial Storage
(Adapted from The Packer, 2006).

Commodity	Approximate Storage Life With Proper Storage Temperatures

Beech mushroom	30 days

Enoki	14 days

Maitake	7 - 21 days

Morel	7 – 14 days

Oyster	5 - 12 days

Shiitake	12 – 14 days

White button mushroom, Crimini, and Portobella	7 – 10 days

Wood ear	7 days



COOKING PREPARATION AND COOKING METHODS FOR THE EDIBLE FUNGI CROP GROUP:

	In general all of the edible fungi are brushed or very lightly rinsed
to remove soil immediately before any food preparation or eaten raw. 
There is n need to peel mushrooms before cooking.  A discussion of most
of the uses of the edible fungi is contained in the “Comparison of raw
agricultural commodity (RAC), edible portions, and processed food item
section of this report.”  

	The culinary uses of edible fungi are numerous.  Most edible fungi
members are eaten fresh, sautéed, stir fried, microwaved, baked,
braised, roasted, grilled, broiling, steamed, or used in soups, sauces,
omelets, and stews.  The stem is also trimmed off on some of the
mushrooms such as the shiitakes.  Mushrooms are utilized with many
vegetables and seasonings such as garlic, onions, shallots, olive oil,
thyme, parsley, and butter.

CHANGES TO EPA DATABASES:

The proposed new Edible Fungi Crop Group 21 will affect the need to
update many Risk Assessment Models, Residue Chemistry Guidelines, OPP
databases, and/or HED Standard Operating Procedures (SOP).

The affected EPA databases may include the following:

(1) Risk Assessment Models - The terminology in the Food Exposure
Modules of our current Risk assessment Models from DEEM-FCID, Lifeline,
and Cares will need to be updated to reflect new terminology and the new
Crop Group terminology.

	(2) EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1000, Background),
Table 1 Raw Agricultural and Processed Commodities and Feedstuffs
Derived from Crops and EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS
860.1000, Background), EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS
860.1500, Crop Field Trials), Table 5 Suggested Distribution of Field
Trials by Region for Crops Requiring > 3 trials and Table 6 Regional
Distribution of Crop Production. 

Any differences between the EPA and NAFTA Crop Production Regions after
the NAFTA Regions are updated will be addressed by the ICCGR Workgroup. 
The EPA Residue Chemistry Test Guidelines (OPPTS 860.1500, Crop Field
Trials) Table 5 Suggested Distribution of Field Trials by Region for
Crops Requiring >3 trials and Table 6 Regional Distribution of Crop
Production will be updated to reflect more recent crop production
information. 

(3) Health Effects Division Standard Operating Procedures:  HED SOP 99.3
-  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 – “Translation of Monitoring Data” issued
March 26, 1999.  This policy provides guidance on translating pesticide
monitoring data from one commodity to other similar commodities.  The
policy is based on the crop groupings in the 40 CFR 180.41.

Members of the Edible fungi crop group were not included in the policy
and this policy does not need to be updated at this time.

(4) HED SOP 99.6 -   SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1  “Classification of Food
Forms with Respect to Level of Blending” issued August 20, 1999.  This
SOP provides rationale and guidance to HED on revised criteria for
inputting residue values and pesticide usage information into acute
dietary exposure and risk assessments based on commodities.  These
revisions permit the Agency to more fully utilize data generated by the
USDA Pesticide Data Program.

	The Edible fungi group members were not in the original SOP and will
need to be added to the HED SOP 99.6.  All of the members of the edible
fungi group will be considered to be partially blended.  The food forms
for mushrooms are: coked nfs; uncooked; baked; boiled; fried; canned
nfs; canned cooked; canned baked; canned boiled; and frozen cooked

(5) HED SOP 2000.1 – “  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 Guidance for Translation
of Field Trial Data from Representative Commodities in the Crop Group
Regulation to Other Commodities in Each Crop Group/Subgroup” issued
September 12, 2000.

There is no guidance in the SOP for the new Edible fungi crop group, so
the following guidance for translation of the representative commodities
to other members of the group will be provided below:

	Crop Group 21:  Edible fungi

Representative Commodities:  White button mushroom and Shiitake mushroom
or oyster mushroom.  

CROP GROUP COMMODITY		REPRESENTATIVE COMMODITY

     Blewitt					Shiitake mushroom*

     Beech mushroom				Shiitake mushroom*

     Chinese mushroom				White button mushroom

     Enoki					Shiitake mushroom*

     Hime-Maitake					White burron mushroom

     Hirmeola					Shiitake mushroom*

     Maitake					Shiitake mushroom*

     Morel					Shiitake mushroom*

     Nameko					Shiitake mushroom*

     Net bearing dictyophora			Shiitake mushroom*

     Oyster					Oyster mushroom

     Pom pom					Shiitake mushroom*

     Reishi mushroom				Shiitake mushroom*

     Rodman’s mushroom				White button mushroom

     Shiitake mushroom				Shiitake mushroom

     Shimeji					White button mushroom

     Stropharia					White button mushroom

     Truffle					Shiitake mushroom*

     White button mushroom			White button mushroom

     White jelly fungi				Shiitake mushroom*

* In lieu of shiitake mushroom data, oyster mushroom can be substituted
or visa versa, as the registrant is free to choose between shiitake
mushroom and oyster mushroom as the representative commodity. 

Table 9. Health Effects Division Dry Matter and Seeding Rate Database. 
Edible Fungi Crop Group.  Prepared by Dr’s. NG and B. A. Schneider. 
June 2006.  

Commodity 	% Dry Matter

Blewitt	10.0, 12.0

Chinese mushroom	9.6, 10.0, 11.1, 12.0

Enoki mushroom	8.0

Himematsutake	9.9

Maitake	10.0, 20.0

Oyster mushroom	9.0, 9.2, 10.0

Pom pom	10.0, 11.0

Rodman’s agaricus	8.0

Shiitake	8.3, 8.5, 10.0, 10.3, 15.0

Shiitake dried	87.0, 90.0

Straw mushroom	10.3

Stropharia	8.0

White Button mushroom	8.0, 8.5, 9.0, 9.5, 10.0, 10.3, 11.0, 11.7

Wood ear	9.0; 10.0, 10.9



CODEX CLASSIFICATION OF PROPOSED COMMODITIES AND EPA FOOD AND FEED
COMMODITY VOCABULARY. 

There is no current EPA crop group for edible fungi or one in the Codex
Classification of Foods and Feeds (CODEX 2006).  In the Codex
classification system, however, mushrooms and edible fungi are in the
Codex group 012 – Fruiting Vegetables other than Cucurbits (code VO). 
The Codex group 012  includes edible fungi (VO 449) that does not
include mushroom, but includes many wild types like Boletus edulis,
Morchella spp., Pleurotus ostreatus; Fungi, chanterelle (VO 4287) and
mushrooms (VO 450) that include cultivated cultivars of Agaricus spp. 
While edible fungi may be considered a fruiting vegetable, their unique
cultural practices preclude the U.S. from adding them to the Fruiting
vegetable crop group 8, and justify a separate U.S. crop group called
“Edible fungi crop group 21.

A Codex update of the Classification of Foods and Feeds (CODEX 2006) is
being corporately worked on by the ICGCC and a Codex delegation to help
harmonize the US and Codex systems.  The ICGCC Workgroup will continue
the collaboration effort with the Codex Committee of Pesticide Residue
(CCPR) to develop a harmonized crop grouping system.  The main
difference now between the U.S. and the Codex Crop grouping systems is
that the U.S. has representative commodities and Codex does not.  

COMMODITY DEFINITIONS [(40 CFR ( 180.1(h)]:

	There are no commodity definitions proposed for the Edible fungi crop
group.  

TOLERANCE EXPRESSION GUIDANCE:

TOLERANCE EXPRESSION:

Until the Federal Register Notice is issued revising the Crop Group
Regulation to establish the new Edible fungi crop group 21 the new
commodities approved for the group will have to be listed individually
at the same tolerance level.  Since ChemSAC has approved the amendments
to the Edible fungi crop group 21, the Risk Integration, Minor Use, and
Emergency Response Branch (RIMUERB) of the Registration Division can
immediately implement the new Crop Group with new tolerance expressions
located in the Section F submissions.  Several tolerance expression
examples for guidance purposes for use by RIMUERB and HED reviewers will
be listed below:

Example 1.  What will be the tolerance expression for the new Edible
fungi crop group 21?

Answer to Example 1:

The tolerance expression for the new Edible fungi Crop Group 21 will be
“Edible fungi group 21.”

Example 2.  How will the Crop group appear in the Federal Register for
the proposed crop group regulation [40CFR 180.41(c)]?  This example is
for the Field and External Affairs Division (FEAD) use in preparing the
new Federal Register Regulation.  The example follows the same format as
the current Crop Grouping Regulation Federal Register Notice (FR 60,
No.95, 5/17/95, 26626-26643). 

Answer to Example 2:

The tolerance expression for the new Edible fungi crop group is as
follows: 

“Crop Group 21: Edible Fungi Crop Group.

Representative commodities.  White button mushroom and any one oyster
mushroom and shiitake oyster.

Table.  The following Table 1 lists all the commodities listed in Crop
Group 21.

TABLE 1 -Crop Group 21: Edible Fungi Crop Group

Commodities

Blewitt (Lepista nuda)

Beech mushroom (Hypsizygus tessellatus)

Chinese mushroom (Volvariella volvacea)

Enoki (Flammulina velutipes)

Hime-Matsutake (Agaricus blazeri)

Hirmeola (Auricularia auricular)

Maitake (Grifola frondosa)

Morel (Morchella spp.)

Nameko (Pholiota nameko)

Net bearing dictyophora (Phallus indusiatus)

Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.)

Pom pom (Hericium erinaceus)

Reishi mushroom (Ganoderma lucidum)

Rodman(s agaricus (Agaricus bitorquis)

Shiitake mushroom (Lentinula edodes)

Shimeji (Tricholoma conglobatum)

Stropharia (Stropharia spp.)

Truffle (Tuber spp.)

White button mushroom (Agaricus bisporis)

White jelly fungi (Tremella fuciformis)



Example 3:  How will I express the tolerances on an interim basis until
the Federal Register Notice is final for the Edible fungi crop group 21
for example at a tolerance level of 1.5 ppm?  This example will be
useful for the Registration Division (RD) and Health Effects Division
(HED) to prepare tolerance tables.  Since this is a new crop group all
of the proposed commodities will have to be listed separately from the
crop group tolerance and at the same level as the crop group. 

Answer to Example 3:

Commodity	Parts per million (ppm)

Blewitt	1.5

Beech mushroom	1.5

Chinese mushroom	1.5

Enoki	1.5

Hime-Matsutake	1.5

Hirmeola	1.5

Maitake	1.5

Morel	1.5

Nameko	1.5

Net bearing dictyophora	1.5

Oyster mushroom	1.5

Pom pom	1.5

Reishi mushroom	1.5

Rodman(s agaricus	1.5

Shiitake mushroom	1.5

Shimeji	1.5

Stropharia	1.5

Truffle	1.5

White button mushroom	1.5

White jelly fungi	1.5



EPA FOOD AND FEED COMMODITY VOCABULARY:

	The following terms for the berries and small fruits will be
incorporated to the EPA Food and Feed Commodity Database (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.epa.govopp/foodfeed"  http://www.epa.govopp/foodfeed ).  A
search of the lookup terms will link to the EPA preferred
tolerance/commodity term.  Until the Federal Register Notice for the
Crop Group is final, the Crop Group designation on each term will be
listed as no crop group or crop subgroup and given the crop group 99 for
the present.  

Edible Fungi Commodity	Lookup Term   

Blewitt 	Blewitt; blue foot; bluefoot; murasaki – shimeji; masked
tricholoma

Beech mushroom 	Bunashimeji; beech mushroom; mushroom; beech;
shirotamogitak; elm mushroom

Chinese mushroom 	Chinese mushroom; paddy-straw mushroom; cao gu;
fukurotake; paddy mushroom; straw mushroom; paddy straw mushroom

Enoki	Enoki; enoke; enokitake; enok; velvet stew; winter mushroom; jin
Tsen gu; velvet shank; golden mushroom; golden needle; snow peak
mushroom; snow puff mushroom; nametake; yuki-motase; velvet foot
collybia; furry foot collybia

Himematsutake	Himematsutake; hime-matsutake; murrills agaricus; royal
sun agaricus; kawariharatake; cogmelo de dues; king agaricus; almond
portobello

Hirmeola 	Hirmeola; wood ear; ear fungus; tree ear; ngo; kirurage;
mokurage

Maitake	Maitake; hen-of-the-woods; chicken -of-the-woods; kumotake;
dancing mushroom; cloud mushroom; dancing butterfly mushroom; rams head
mushroom; sheep head mushroom

Morel	Morel; yellow morel; morille; white Morel; black morel;
black-veined fungus; bare-topped fungus; thick-stalked fungus; pecks
morel; conic morel

Nameko	Nameko; namerake; slime pholita; viscid mushroom

Net bearing dictyophora	Net bearing dictyophora; veiled lady

Oyster mushroom	Oyster mushroom; hiratake; tree oyster; Florida oyster;
blue oyster; seta; golden oyster; tamogitake; abalone mushroom; king
oyster mushroom; tarragon oyster; tree oyster; savory oyster;
cardarella; Indian oyster; pleurotus; pleurotte; pleurote mushroom;
phoenix oyster; phoenix mushroom

Pom pom	Pom pom; pom pom blanc; monkey head mushroom; lion’s mane; the
bear’s head fungus; sheep heads; yamabushi-taki; houton; old mans
beard; fungus icicles; medusa head; hedgehog mushroom; satyrs beard;
yamabushi taki

Reishi mushroom	Reishi mushroom; ling zhi; ling chi; lin zi; mushroom of
immortality; divine mushroom; tree of life mushroom; mannentake;
saiwaitake; good fortune mushroom; sarunouchitake; panacea polypore

Rodmans agaricus	Rodmans agaricus; Meadow mushroom; Summer Mushroom

Shiitake mushroom 	Shiitake mushroom; shiitake; Japanese black mushroom,
Chinese black mushroom, black forest mushroom; donku; pasania; shii
mushroom; black mushroom; oakwood mushroom; black oakwood mushroom;
brown oak mushroom; shiangu-gu; shiang ku; fragrant mushroom 

Shimeji	Shimeji; Shan ku; Xiang gu Shimeji; Cong sheng kou mo;
hon-shimeji; hon-shimeji; pioppini 

Stropharia	Stropharia; wine-red stropharia; garden giant;  mushroom;
chrysanthemum mushroom; wine cap; godzilla mushroom; burgundy mushroom;
gartenrise; king stropharia

Truffle	Truffle; Oregon white truffle; Black truffle; Perigord truffle;
White truffle; Indian white truffle

White button mushroom 	White button mushroom ; Crimini, Portobello, Baby
bella, Portabella, Button mushroom, Cremini, Portobellini; honey brown
mushroom; roman brown mushroom; White mushroom, Champignon, Champinon,
Roman brown mushroom; Italian brown; Masherum, Yang gu; ports; brown
button mushroom; blanco bello

White jelly fungi 	White Jelly Fungi; Bai mu re, Yin re, yin er; white
jelly leaf; silver earSilver ear



REFERENCES:

ALICBUSAN: Alicbusan, R. V. Mushroom production technology for rural
development. Online publication.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80434e/80434E0m.htm" 
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80434e/80434E0m.htm 

ALEXOPOULOS:  Alexopoulos, C.S. 1966. Introductory Mycology. Second Ed. 
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY. 608 pp.

ANGELFIRE: Angelfire website. Online article on Cultivated Mushrooms for
Food.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.angelfire.com/wizard/kimbrough/Textbook/CultivatedMushForFoo
d_blue.htm" 
http://www.angelfire.com/wizard/kimbrough/Textbook/CultivatedMushForFood
blue.htm 

ASIA FOOD: Online Information.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.asiafood.org/glossary_1.cfm?alpha=S&wordid=3288&startno=53&e
ndno=77" 
http://www.asiafood.org/glossary_1.cfm?alpha=S&wordid=3288&startno=53&en
dno=77 

BEETZ: Beetz, A. and M. Kustudia. 2004.  Mushroom Cultivation and
Marketing. AATRA National Center for Appropriate Technology
(http://www.aatra.org)

BEYER: Beyer, D.M. and V.L. Wilkinson. 2002. Spawn, Spawning and Spawn
Growth. Penn State Department of Plant Pathology. Mushroom Fact Sheet.
http://mushroomspawn.cas.psu.edu/spawngrowth.htm

BEYER: Beyer, D.M. 2003. Procedures for Agaricus Mushroom Growing. 
Department of Plant Pathology.  Mushroom Fact Sheet. CAT UL210.  

CHANG 1999. Chang, S-T. 1999.  Cultivation of Shiitake on Natural and
Synthetic Logs. Online Publication. Penn State University, College of
Agricultural Sciences, Agricultural Research and Cooperative Extension, 
 HYPERLINK "http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ul203.pdf" 
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/ul203.pdf 

CHANG 2004. Chang, S-T. and P.G. Miles. Mushrooms: Cultivation
Nutritional Value, Medicinal Effect, and Environmental Effect. Second
Ed., CRC Press. Boca Raton, FL. 451 pp

CHEN, A: Chen, A. 2001. Cultivation of Lentinula Edodes on Synthetic
Logs. The Mushroom Grower’s Newsletter. (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.mushromcompany.com"  http://www.mushromcompany.com ). 

CHEN, C-J.:  Chen, C-J. 2000. Mushroom Cultivation. Pp1673-1678.  In
Encyclopedia of Food Science and Technology. Volume 3. Second Ed. F.J.
Francis, Editor. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY.  

CHEN, H. Chen, H. et al. 2001. Atlas of the Traditional Vegetables in
China. Zhejian Science and Technology Publishing House. Pp. 159.

CHEN, X: Chen, X. M.D. Ospina-Giraldo, V. Wilkinson, D.J. Royse, and
C.P. Romaine. 2003. Resistance of Pre- and Post-Epidemic Strains of
Agaricus bisporus to Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum. Plant
Disease 87:(12) 1457-1461.

CLAIBORNES: Claibornes. C. 1985. The New York Times Food Encylopedia.
Pp. 284-287. Times Books. NY, NY 

CLINE: Cline, E. 2005.  Personal communications. Edible fungi names. 23
Nov. 05. USDA/ARS  Systematic Botany & Mycology Laboratory, MD.

COLLORY: Collopy, P.D> and D. Royse. 2004. Characterization of Phytase
Activity from Cultivated Edible Mushrooms and Their Production
Substrates. J. World Food Chemistry 52(25) 7518 – 7524.   

COYLE: Coyle, L.P. 1982.  The World Encyclopedia of Food. Pp. 414-415. 
Facts on File. NY, NY. 

DAVIS: Davis, J. 1995. Producing Shiitake Mushrooms: A Guide for
Small-Scale Outdoor Cultivation. NC State Cooperative Extension Service
Woodland Owner Notes.WON-19.

DUGGAN 2005a: Duggan, P. 2005a. Personal communications. Tolerances on
edible fungi. 27 Oct. 05.

ELVING: Elving, P. 1987, Sunset Fresh Produce. Pp. 89-91. Lane
Publishing, Co.,  Menlo Park, CA.  

EVERETT: Everett, T.H. 1981. Mushrooms. The New York Botanical Garden
Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture. Volume 7. Pp. 2252-2253.
Garland Publ.., Inc. NY. 

FACCIOLA: Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants.
 Kampong Publ. Vista, CA.  677 pp.

FAIRCHILD 2005:  Fairchild, L.  2005. The Packer Guide, 2005 Produce
Availability and Merchandizing Guide.  Vance Publ. Corp. Lenexa, KS. 330
pp.

FAO STATISTICS: FAO Statistics 2004.   HYPERLINK
"http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops" 
http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/form?collection=Production.Crops .

FARR: Farr, D.F., A.Y. Rossman, M.E. Palm, and E.B. McCray. 2006: Fungal
Databases, Systematic Botany and Mycology Lboratory, ARS, USDA. 

  HYPERLINK "http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases" 
http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases 

FASONLINE.  FASonline MRL Database. Horticultural & Tropical Products
Division, USDA Foreign Agricultural Service,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.mrldatabase.com/result.cfm" 
http://www.mrldatabase.com/result.cfm  

FUNGI DATABASE: Pacific Northwest Fungi Database. Washington State
University.   HYPERLINK
"http://pnwfungi.wsu.edu/programs/aboutDatabase.asp" 
http://pnwfungi.wsu.edu/programs/aboutDatabase.asp  

FUNK: Funk, S. 2005. Personal communications. Codex tolerances on edible
fungi. 16 Nov. 05.

FUZHOU: Online food product information. Fuzhou Fengfeng Foodsfuff, Co.,
Ltd.   HYPERLINK "http://www.fzff.cn/"  http://www.fzff.cn/  

GEBHARDT: Gebhardt, S.E. and R.H. Matthews. Nutritive Value of Foods.
USDA Human Nutrition and Information Service. Home and Garden Bulletin
Number 72. 72 pp.  

GRIN: World Economic Plants in GRIN, Online information,
http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxecon.pl

HAIFA. Online Information. Biodiversity and Biotechnology Center of
Cryptogamic Plants and Fungi at the Institute of Evolution, University
of Haifa.   HYPERLINK "http://research.haifa.ac.il/~evolut/Fungi/" 
http://research.haifa.ac.il/~evolut/Fungi/  

HANDBOOK. Mushroom Integrated Pest Management. Online Publication. Penn
State University.   HYPERLINK
"http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/AGRS83.pdf" 
http://pubs.cas.psu.edu/FreePubs/pdfs/AGRS83.pdf  

HAUGEN 1993. Haugen, J.and G.B. Holcomb. 1993. A Small-Scale Agriculture
Alternative. Shiitake Mushrooms. USDA Cooperative State Research
Service. 2pp. 

HAUGEN 1994: Haugen, J., G.B. Holcomb, H.W. Kerr. 1994. A Small-Scale
Agriculture Alternative. Specialty Mushrooms. USDA Cooperative State
Research Service. 2pp. 

HOLMCOMB: Holcomb, G.B. 1987. A Small-Scale Agriculture Alternative.
Mushrooms. USDA Cooperative State Research Service. 2pp. 

HYNES: Hynes, s. 2005. Personal communications. Edible fungi in Canada
based on Statistics Canada, Catalogue no. 22-003-XIB. PMRA, Health
Canada. 13 Nov. 05. 

KAYE: Kaye, G.C. 1986. Wild and Exotic Mushroom Cultivation in North
America. Second Ed.  Farlow Reference Library and Herbarium of
Cryptogamic Botany. Harvard University. Cambridge, MASS. 59 pp. 

LAMBERT: Lambert, E.B. 1961. Mushroom Growing in the United States. USDA
Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1875. 

LINGZHI: Ling Zhi.  Online information.   HYPERLINK
"http://micronet.im.ac.cn/ecofungi/html/1071.html" 
http://micronet.im.ac.cn/ecofungi/html/1071.html 

LUCIER 2003: Lucier, G. J. Allshouse, and Biing-Hwan Li. 2003. Factors
Affecting U.S. Mushroom Consumption.  USDA Economic Research Service
Publication VGS-295-01 (March 2003.

LUCIER: Lucier, G. and A. Jerardo. 2005. Vegetables and Melons Outlook.
USDA Economic Research Service Publication VGS-310 (8/18/05). 

MAGNESS: Magness, J.R., G.M. Markle and C.C. Compton. 1971. Food and
Feed Crops of the United States. NJAES Bulletin 828, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick. 255 pp. 

MANSFELD: Mansfelds.2001. Mansfeld’s World Database of Agricultural
and Horticultural Crops. Hanlelt, P. and IPK, Editors. Springer Publ.

  HYPERLINK
"http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/Mansfeld/Taxonomy/datenvoll.afp?modu
le" 
http://mansfeld.ipk-gatersleben.de/Mansfeld/Taxonomy/datenvoll.afp?modul
e 

MARKLE 1998: Markle, G.M., J. J. Baron, and B.A. Schneider. 1998. Food
and Feed Crops of the United States.  Second Ed., MeisterPro Reference
Guides. Willoughby, Ohio.  Monograph # 392, 393.

MARKLE 2002: Markle, G.M., J. J. Baron, and B.A. Schneider. 2002
International Crop Grouping Symposium Proceedings. Oct. 7-8. Arlington,
VA. Rutgers State University. NJ, Publ. # P27200-10-02.

MCBAIN. McBain, M. 2001. Fungimap Online publication.   HYPERLINK
"http://fungimap.rbg.vic.gov.au/fsp/sp047.html" 
http://fungimap.rbg.vic.gov.au/fsp/sp047.html ,   HYPERLINK
"http://fungimap.rbg.vic.gov.au/fsp/sp070.html" 
http://fungimap.rbg.vic.gov.au/fsp/sp070.html 

MCKNIGHT: McKnight, K. and V. Mcknight. 1987. A Field Guide to Mushrooms
of North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., NY. 429 pp.

MULLER 2005a: Muller, E. 2005a. Personal communications. Edible fungi in
Codex and Europe crop classification systems. 28 Oct. 05.

MUSHROOMINFO:   HYPERLINK "http://www.mushroominfo.com/" 
http://www.mushroominfo.com/  

MYCELIA: Mycelia Online Information. http://www.mycelia.be/mycalg.htm;  
HYPERLINK "http://www.mycelia.be/mycstrainlist1.htm" 
http://www.mycelia.be/mycstrainlist1.htm  

MYERS: Myers, S.C. and P. Colditz. 1999. Weights and Processed Yields of
Fruit and Vegetables in Retail Containers. Univ Georgia College Agri and
Environmental Sci.  Cooperative Extension Service:  Circular 780. Natio

MYKOWEB:   HYPERLINK "http://www.mykoweb.com/"  http://www.mykoweb.com/ 


NAGASAWA 2005c: Nagasawa, N. & J. Ikeda. 2005c. Personal Communication.
Fruiting vegetables and mushrooms in Japan, based on Statistics of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries by MAFF. 13 Jun. 05.

NAGASAWA 2005d: Nagasawa, N. & J. Ikeda. 2005c. Personal Communication.
Mushroom monographs. 31 Oct. 05. 

NORDEN 2005c: Norden, A. 2005c. Personal communications. Edible fungi in
Australia. 14 Nov. 05.

NORDEN 2005d: Norden, A. 2005c. Personal communications. Edible fungi in
Australia. 16 Nov. 05.

O’TOOLE: O’Toole, S. 2005. Personal communications. Tolerances on
edible fungi in the U.S. 16 Nov. 05.

PHELPS: Phelps L. Personal Communication,  Mushrooms.  American Mushroom
Institute. Washington, DC. 29 April, 05

PILZ: Pilz, D., L. Norvell, E. Danell, and R. Molina. 2003. Ecology and
Management of Commercially Harvested Chanterelle Mushrooms. USDA Forest
Service. Pacific Northwest Research Station. General Technical Report.
PNW-GTR-576. 

PLANTNAMES: Multilingual multiscript plant name database. The University
of Melbourn.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Pholiota.html" 
http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Pholiota.html 

PLANTS FOR A FUTURE: Plants For a Future, Online Information,  
HYPERLINK
"http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Vitis+amurensis&CAN=COMIND
" 
http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Vitis+amurensis&CAN=COMIND 

PURDUE: Purdue Homepage,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html" 
http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html 

RAI: Rai, R.D. 2004. Production of Edible Fungi. Pp. 233-246 In Chapter
21 of Fungal Biotechnology in Agricultural, Food, and Environmental
Applications. D.K. Arora, Editor. Marcel Dekker, Inc. NY.  

RICHTER: Richter, H. 2003.  Fresh Produce Guide.  Try-Foods
International, Inc.  Apopka, FL. 84 pp.

RINKER 2005a: Rinker, D. L. 2005a. Personal Communication, Mushrooms in
Canada. Ontario, Canada, July, 05. 

RINKER 2005b: Rinker, D. L. 2005b. Personal Communication, Mushrooms.
Ontario, Canada, 8 Nov. 05.

RINZLER: Rinzler, C.A. 1987. The Complete Book of Food.  Pp. 218-221.
World Almanac. NY, NY. 

ROYSE 1996: D. J. Royse. 1996. Specialty Mushrooms. Pp In J.Janick (ed.)
Progress in New Crops. ASHS Press, Arlingon, VA.

ROYSE 1997: D. J. Royse. 1997. Specialty Mushrooms and Their
Cultivation.  Horticulture Rev. 19: 59 – 97.

ROYSE 2001: D. J. Royse and J.E. Sanchez-Vazquez. 2001. Influence of
Substrate Wood-Chip Particle Size on Shiitake (Lentinula edodes) Yield.
Bioresource Technology 76(3): 229-233. 

ROYSE 2002: D. J. Royse. Specialty Mushrooms. Penn State University.
Online article.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.ppath.cas.psu.edu/EXTENSION/SPAWN/Specialtymushroom.html#Hyp
sizygus" 
http://www.ppath.cas.psu.edu/EXTENSION/SPAWN/Specialtymushroom.html#Hyps
izygus  

ROYSE 2004: D. J. Royse, T.W. Rhodes, S. Ohga, and J.E. Sanchez. 2004.
Yield, Mushroom Size and Time to Production of Pleurotus cornucopiae
(Oyster Mushroom) Grown on Switch Grass Substrate Spawned and
Supplemented at Various Rates. Bioresource Technology 91(1): 85-91. 

SACKETT: Sackett, C. 1975, Mushrooms. Fruit & Vegetable Facts and
Pointers.  United Fresh Fruit and Vegetable Association. Washington, DC.
20 pp,

SANCHEZ: Sanchez, J.E. and D. J. Royse. 2001. Adapting Substrate
Formulas Used for Shiitake Production of Brown Agaricus bisporus.
Bioresource Technology 77(1): 65-69. 

SCHLOSSER: Schlosser, W.E. and K.A. Blatner. 1995. The Wild Edible
Mushroom Industry of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Journal of Forestry.
93: 31-36. 

SCHNEIDER: Schneider, Bernard A. 1992. Crop Grouping Part I –
Evaluation of the Crop Grouping Scheme and Response to Workgroup
Questions. US EPA. DP Barcode # D 164769, 165813, 168088, 181219, and
181222. Sept. 8.

SCHNEIDER 1996a:  Schneider, Bernard A. 1996.  Response to Comments from
Dupont Agricultural Products on Crops that are Not Rotated for the Draft
Residue Chemistry Guidelines (860 Series. US EPA.  April 8.

SCHNEIDER: Schneider, E. 1986. Uncommon Fruits and Vegetables. 
Commonsense Guide.  Harper and Row Publ. NY. 546 pp. 

SCHREIBER: Schreiber, A. and L. Ritchie. 1995. Washington Minor Crops. 
Food and Environmental Quality Lab, Washington State University.  325
pp.

SHEN: Shen, Q and D.J. Royse. 2001. Effects of Genotypes of Maitake
(Grifola frondsa) on Biological Efficiency, Quality and Crop Cycle Time.
 Appl. Microbiol Biotechnology. 58: 178-182. 

SHIPMAN: Shipman, J.S. and R.O. Blanchard. 1981. Mushroom Facts for
Safety and Enjoyment. University of New Hampshire. Cooperative Extension
Service. Extension Publication No. 34.  

SIMPSON: Simpson, B.B. and M.C. Ogorzaly. 2001.  Economic Botany. Plants
in Our World. Third Edition. McGraw-Hill Co. NY. 529 pp.  

SLOAN-KETTERING: Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center Homepage.  
HYPERLINK "http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/44.cfm" 
http://www.mskcc.org/mskcc/html/44.cfm 

SPECIES CATALOG: 2002 Oakland Fungus Fair – Species Catalog.
Mycological 

Society of San Francisco Homepage.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.mssf.org/sp_lists/Oakland_2002_catalogue.pdf" 
http://www.mssf.org/sp_lists/Oakland_2002_catalogue.pdf 

SPOREWORKS: Online information on mushroom growing kits.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.sporeworks.com/"  http://www.sporeworks.com/  

SRINGBOARD: Springboard online article.

  HYPERLINK
"http://www.springboard4health.com/notebook/health_agaricus_1.html" 
http://www.springboard4health.com/notebook/health_agaricus_1.html 

STAMETS 1983: Stamets, P. and J.S. Chilton. 1983. The Mushroom
Cultivator. Agarikon Press. Olympia, WA. 415 pp.

STAMETS 2000: Stamets, P. 2000. Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms.
Ten Speed Press. Berkely, CA. Third Ed. 574 pp. 

STEPHENS: Stephens, J. M. Truffles -- Tuber spp. 1994. Online
publication. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural
Sciences (UF/IFAS).   HYPERLINK
"http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV147#FOOTNOTE" 
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/MV147#FOOTNOTE 

STEVENS: Stevens, W. 2005. Personal Communication.  Mushrooms Grown in
Canada.  Nov. 17, 2005.

STOT: Stott, K. 2003. Cultivation of the Edible and Medicinal Mushroom
Maitake – Relevance of Literature to Production in Australia.
International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms.   5(12): 1-130.  

TABATA:  Tabata, T., Y. Yamasaki, T. Ogura. 2004. Comparison of Chemical
Compositions of Maitake (Grifola frondosa (Fr.) S.F> Gray) Cultivated on
Logs and Sawdust Substrate. Food Science and Technology Research 10(1):
21-24. 

TROY GARDENS.  Online Information.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.troygardens.org/index.html" 
http://www.troygardens.org/index.html . 

UOCHB: Online publication. Institute of Organic Chemistry and
Biochemistry. Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.uochb.cas.cz/Welcome_en.html" 
http://www.uochb.cas.cz/Welcome_en.html  

US EPA 1995: US EPA. 1995. Table II (September 1995): Raw Agricultural
and Processed Commodities and Feedstuffs Derived from Field Crops. 
Subdivision O, Residue Chemistry, Pesticide Assessment Guidelines
OPP/HED/EPA, Washington, DC.  22 pp.

US EPA 1996: US EPA. 1996. Reduce Chemistry Test Guidelines, OPPTS 860
1000 to 1900. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. August,
1996. 

US EPA 1997: US EPA. 1997. The FIFRA and FFDCA as amended by the Food
Quality Protection Act (FQPA) of August 3, 1996. OPP, EPA. March, 1997.
Pamphlet 730L97001. 189 pp. 

US EPA 2005: US EPA. 2005. Title 40-Protection of Environment Parts 150
to 189. Code of Federal Regulations. Office of the Federal Register.
U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington D.C. 707 pp. USDA 2005: 
USDA Agricultural Statistics 2005: USDA Statistics 2005.
http://www.usda.gov/nass/

USDA AMS 1962:  USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. 1962. United States
Standards for Grades of Canned Mushrooms. http://www.ams.usda.gov/fv 

USDA AMS 1997:  USDA Agricultural Marketing Service. 1997. United States
Standards for Grades of Mushrooms. http://www.ams.usda.gov/fv 

USDA Crop Profiles. 2005: USDA Crop Profiles. 2005:

USDA Crop Profiles 1999. Mushrooms in California.   HYPERLINK
"http://ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/pamushrooms.html" 
http://ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/camushrooms.html 

USDA Crop Profiles 1999. Mushrooms in Pennsylvania.   HYPERLINK
"http://ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/pamushrooms.html" 
http://ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/pamushrooms.html 

USDA ERS. 2006.  USDA Food Availability Per Capita Data System. USDA
Economic Research Service.  (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.ers.usda.dov/data/food consumption/foodavailqheriable.aspx" 
http://www.ers.usda.dov/data/food consumption/foodavailqheriable.aspx ).


USDA FAS 2006:  USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. Foreign Agriculture
Trade (FATUS) Imports and Exports. FAS Online (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.fas.usda.gov/ustrade/USTImFatus" 
http://www.fas.usda.gov/ustrade/USTImFatus )

USDA GRIN 2005: USDA, GRIN 2005. USDA, ARS, National Genetic Resources
Program. Germplasm Resource Information Network – (GRIN) [online
database]. US National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, MD.
URL: http://www.ars-grin.gov 

USDA ERS 2005. USDA ERS. 2005. Food Consumption Per Capita Data System. 
Food Availability Custom Queries. Dec 23. (  HYPERLINK
"http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/food consumption/foodavailqueriable.aspx" 
http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/food consumption/foodavailqueriable.aspx ).

USDA NASS: USDA. 2005. Mushrooms. USDA National Agricultural Statistics
Service. VG 2-1-2 (8-05). 

USDA, NRCS 2004: USDA, NRCS 2004. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.5
(http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA
70874-4490 USA. 

USDA National Nutrient Database, 2004.
http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp/search

WALDE: Walde, S.G., V. Velu, T. Jyothirmayi, and R.G. Math. 2006.
Effects of Pretreatments and Drying Methods on Dehydration of Mushroom.
Journal of Food Engineering. 74: (1): 108-115.

WOOD. Wood, M. and F. Stevens. 2001. Stropharia coronilla. The Fungi of
California.   HYPERLINK
"http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Stropharia_coronilla.html" 
http://www.mykoweb.com/CAF/species/Stropharia_coronilla.html 

WIKIPEDIA: Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia Online information.   
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page" 
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page 

WU: Wu, B.K. 2000. Mushroom Processing. Pp 1678-1682. In Encyclopedia of
Food Science and Technology. Volume 3. Second Ed. F.J. Francis, Editor.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. NY.  

 For residues from environmental sources other than from pesticide use
on the commodities.

 For post-harvest treatment only.

 PAGE   

 PAGE   56 

 PAGE   

