  SEQ CHAPTER \h \r 1 UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

WASHINGTON D.C., 20460



OFFICE OF

PREVENTION, PESTICIDES AND TOXIC SUBSTANCES

MEMORANDUM

SUBJECT:	Assessment of the Benefits of Soil Fumigation with
Chloropicrin, Metam-Sodium, and Methyl Bromide in Eggplant Production
(DP# 337490)

FROM:	Angel Chiri, Ph.D., Entomologist

Biological Analysis Branch

		David Donaldson, Economist	

Economic Analysis Branch

Biological and Economic Analysis Division (7503P)

THRU:	Arnet Jones, Chief 	

Biological Analysis Branch

Timothy Kiely, Chief, 

Economic Analysis Branch

Biological and Economic Analysis Division (7503P)

TO:		John Leahy

Special Review and Reregistration Division (7508P)

BEAD Product Review Panel date:	 4 April 2007

Summary

This assessment measures the benefit of chloropicrin, metam-sodium, and
methyl bromide use in eggplant production in California and the
Southeastern states of Florida and Georgia.  These eggplant production
regions account for two thirds of U.S. eggplant acreage and the vast
majority of eggplant fumigant use in the U.S.  Eggplant is grown in open
fields, on raised beds, under organic mulch and plastic tarps, often
followed by non-solanaceous vegetable crops.  In Florida and Georgia,
chloropicrin, in combination with methyl bromide, is applied to over
2,000 acres of eggplant, which is about 80% of the acres grown.  In
California about 20% of eggplant acreage is fumigated with methyl
bromide and chloropicrin or metam-sodium.  In total, nearly half of U.S.
eggplant production (2,500 acres) is fumigated.  Fumigants are used to
control a mix of nematodes, plant pathogens, and weeds.  Without
fumigants, these target pests may reduce yields by 5 to 20 percent in
California and 29 to 55 percent in Georgia and Florida.  Given the
severity of the estimated benefits of fumigation, BEAD anticipates that
half of U.S. eggplant acreage may be unable to continue eggplant
production without their use.  We estimate the benefit of the use of
fumigants in U.S. eggplant production to be approximately $20 million. 

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

As part of the Reregistration Eligibility Decision (RED) process, EPA is
assessing the risks and benefits of the use of several soil fumigants as
a group:  chloropicrin, metam-potassium, metam-sodium, and methyl
bromide.  This document presents the assessment of the benefits to
eggplant production that is provided by these soil fumigants. 
Conceptually, the benefits of a pesticide like a soil fumigant are
comprised of the improvements in production and/or reductions in cost
resulting from the pesticide use.  The social benefits of a pesticide
are divided between the users of the pesticide, e.g., eggplant
producers, and consumers of eggplants and eggplant-containing products. 
Consumers benefit because higher production and/or lower costs translate
into a cheaper and more abundant supply of eggplant. The impact of
fumigant regulation on this consumer benefit is not explicitly evaluated
in this document.

In evaluating the benefits of soil fumigants, this document compares the
current situation in which fumigants are available for use, subject to
existing label restrictions, to the situation that is estimated to occur
were the fumigants not available.  This is somewhat different from other
BEAD assessments of the impacts of regulation, in that no specific
regulatory scheme is considered.

BACKGROUND

Eggplant producing states as surveyed by the National Agricultural
Statistics Service (NASS) are described in Table 1.  There are
approximately 5,800 acres of eggplant harvested for the fresh market
each year in the U.S.  Yield, price, value of production, harvested
acres, and total production volume are given by state and for the U.S.  

Table 1.  Eggplant: Yield, Price, Production Value, Acres Harvested, and
Total Production, for the Fresh Market, by State and U.S. Total, 2000
and 2001 Average.

State	Yield (CWT) 1	Price ($/CWT) 	Value Of Production ($1,000)	Acres
Harvested	Total Production (1,000 CWT)

California2	490	33	8,541	1,500	329

Connecticut	105	33	418	115	13

Florida	255	32	13,627	1,700	434

Georgia	533	19	7,176	775	383

Hawaii	200	73	1,090	75	15

Massachusetts	110	35	193	50	6

New Jersey	225	21	3,852	800	180

New York	205	40	4,289	520	107

North Carolina	135	21	839	305	41

United States	258	27	40,022	5,840	1,506

Sources:  Crop Summary (USDA NASS, 2001-2002); Agricultural Prices (USDA
NASS, 2001-2002).   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nass.usda.gov/QuickStats/Create_Federal_All.jsp" 
http://www.nass.usda.gov/QuickStats/Create_Federal_All.jsp .

1. A CWT is equal to 100 pounds.

2. California yield and price based on “Sample Costs to Produce
Eggplant, 2005,” University of California Cooperative Extension, Page
4,   HYPERLINK
"http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/outreach/cost_return_articles/eggplantam
vs2005.pdf" 
http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/outreach/cost_return_articles/eggplantamv
s2005.pdf .

Note, NASS discontinued collection of eggplant production data in 2002.

Fumigant Use

The following section provides a summary of our understanding of the use
of fumigants in eggplant production.  In preparing this summary, we
referred to the available pesticide use data for the period 2000 to
2005.  Our estimates of fumigant use in California eggplant production
are based on California Department of Pesticide Regulation, Pesticide
Use Reports (PUR).  Fumigant use in other states is based on the
CropLife 2002 Pesticide Use Database, and submissions for Critical Use
of Methyl Bromide under the Montreal Protocol.  

Pesticide use data from the CropLife 2002 Pesticide Use Database and
from the submissions for Critical Use of Methyl Bromide are not
collected using standard survey methods.  For this reason, we are unable
to gauge the accuracy of the data, but have reviewed each of the sources
carefully and have used what we concluded to be the most appropriate and
accurate information.  Thus, the data provided below reflects an element
of professional judgment.  It may therefore be difficult to
independently calculate the same estimates of fumigant use. 
Nonetheless, the information is intended to provide an indication of the
scale of regulatory impacts, not to calculate the exact values of these
impacts.

As shown in Table 2, eggplants are fumigated with chloropicrin, methyl
bromide, metam-sodium, and 1,3-dichloropropene.  Applied in combination,
chloropicrin and methyl bromide are applied to 11% of the eggplant crop
in California, 90% in Florida, and 70% in Georgia. An estimated 16% of
the  eggplant crop in California is treated with metam-sodium, and less
than 5% of the California crop is treated with 1,3-dichloropropene,
either alone or in combination with chloropicrin.

Over 500 thousand pounds of fumigants are used on eggplant per year in
the U.S.  In total, almost 50% of the U.S. eggplant crop is treated with
one or more fumigant.    

Table 2.  Fumigant Use on Eggplant.

Active Ingredient	% Acres Treated1	Acres Treated	Pounds Applied

California

Chloropicrin 	11	150	15,000

Dichloropropene	<5	50	5,000

Metam-sodium	16	250	40,000

Methyl Bromide	10	150	30,000

Florida

Chloropicrin 	90	1,500	260,000

Methyl Bromide	90	1,500	100,000

Georgia

Chloropicrin 	70	550	75,000

Methyl Bromide	70	550	35,000

Source: Data for California is based on the California PUR   HYPERLINK
"http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pur/purmain.htm" 
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pur/purmain.htm ). Data for Florida and
Georgia are based on the CropLife 2002 Pesticide Use Database and
submissions for Critical Use of Methyl Bromide under the Montreal
Protocol.

Note that percent crop treated data were taken from the above data
sources.  Total area treated and pounds applied are calculated using
acreage from Table 1.

Based on crop production regions and the fumigant use patterns, in this
document we assess the benefit of fumigant use on eggplant grown in
California and the Southeast U.S. (Florida and Georgia). 

FUMIGATION CHARACTERISTICS

Target Pests

As shown in Table 3, fumigants are used in California and the
Southeastern States of Florida and Georgia to control several nematodes,
weeds, and diseases in eggplant production.  In California, methyl
bromide, metam-sodium, and, to a lesser extent, 1,3-dichloropropene are
applied pre-plant to control primarily root-knot and stubby-root
nematodes.  Heavy infestations of root-knot nematodes can cause
significant reduction in crop stand and in the growth and yield of
plants, while stubby-root nematode can reduce growth and yield.  In the
low desert region, some fields are fumigated with methyl bromide to
control root diseases. The fumigation also controls most of the weed
problems, obviating the need to use herbicides (Crop Profile for Bell
Peppers in California, 2000).  This information is primarily based on
California peppers, a closely related vegetable production system with a
similar life history and pest vulnerability.  In Florida and Georgia,
methyl bromide and chloropicrin are applied, at least two weeks prior to
planting transplants, for control of soil insects, pathogens, nematodes
and weeds (especially nutsedges), all of which are major pests in
eggplant production (Crop Profile for Eggplant in Florida, 2000).      

Table 3. Key diseases, Pests, and weeds

Region 	Key diseases, Pests and weeds 

California	Crown and root rots caused by soil-borne fungi, particularly
Phytophthora capsici, P. parasitica, Rhizoctonia spp, Verticillium spp,
and Pythium spp.

Plant-parasitic nematodes, primarily root knot (Meloidogyne spp.)

Florida and Georgia	Yellow and purple nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus, C.
rotundus), nightshade (Solanum spp.), white clover (Trifollium repens),
ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia); 

Plant-parasitic nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita; Pratylenchus sp.); 

Pythium root and collar rots (P.irregulare, P. myriotylum, P. ultimum,
P. aphanidermatum); crown and root rot (Phytophthora capsici), Southern
blight (Sclerotium rolfsii); damping-off  (Rhizoctonia solani, Pythium
spp.), white mold (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) 



Use Characteristics

Tables 4 and 5 provide information characterizing typical fumigant use
in eggplant production.

Table 4.  Fumigant Application Information Eggplant Grown In California

Application Rate 	chloropicrin

(lb ai/acre)1		dichloropropene

			metam-sodium

			methyl bromide	50 to 100 pounds per acre

100 pounds per acre

160 pounds per acre

200 pounds per acre

Acres Treated per Day	10 to 40 acres per tractor

Time of Fumigation	Oct – Dec

Application Method	Primarily shank injected under tarp

Application Type	Primarily strip treated with 60% of area treated?

Tarps or Water Caps	HDPE tarp

Typical application rate range, based on California Department of
Pesticide Regulation, Pesticide Use Reporting,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pur/purmain.htm" 
http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/pur/purmain.htm .

Table 5.  Fumigant Application Information Eggplant Grown In Georgia and
Florida 

Application Rate 	chloropicrin

(lb ai/acre)	             methyl bromide 	50 to 75 pounds per acre

125 to 175 pounds per acre

Acres Treated per Day 	10 to 40 acres per tractor

Time of Fumigation	GA – July

FL – Aug. – Jan.

Application Method	Shank injected under tarp

Application Type	Primarily strip with 58 % of area treated

Tarps or Water Caps	LDPE with some HDPE and metalized tarps



PEST CONTROL PRACTICES

Chemical Control Practices

Methyl bromide/chloropicrin fumigation has been the preferred method of
disease and nematode control in Florida eggplant production (Mossler and
Nesheim, 2003).  Fungicides, especially maneb, sulfur, and copper
hydroxide, are also applied to eggplant.  Maneb and copper hydroxide are
used to control blotches, blights, spots, and rots.  Other fungicides
that may be used in eggplant production include copper sulfate, 
chlorothalonil, acibenzolar, azoxystrobin, copper octanoate, and
trifloxystrobin. 

Cultural Control Practices

Planting in well-drained soils and avoiding planting in fields with
large amounts of decomposed plant debris are recommended cultural
controls for damping-off.  Management practices for Phytophthora in
transplant production areas include the use of pathogen-free and
fungicide-treated seeds and sterile potting media.  Flats, plug trays,
benches, seeding equipment, and plant house structures should be
disinfected using a sodium hypochlorite solution or other disinfectant.
Steam sterilization of flats and plug trays may also be useful.
Transplant trays with infected plants should be removed immediately from
production sites. Workers should disinfest their hands after contact
with infected plants.  Planting sites should be well drained and free of
low-lying areas.  Field drainage areas should be kept free of
solanaceous weeds and volunteer crop plants (Mossler and Nesheim, 2003).
     

Cultural control practices, while highly useful, by themselves seldom
provide technically or economically effective control of key pest
problems.  Many pests are long lived and crop rotation is not an
economic alternative.  A totally organic production system is not
feasible for areas with moderate to high pest pressure.  In 2005 only
4.6% of U.S. vegetable production was grown organically (USDA ERS 2006).
 Crop rotation is not effective for managing Phytophthora capsici
because this pathogen can survive several years in the soil and infect
more than 50 plant species.  Research at Cornell (Jahn 2004), funded by
the California Pepper Commission from 2001 through 2004, has shown that
it may be possible to breed resistance to Phytophthora capsici into
pepper plants that already have crown blight and root rot tolerance. 
While this research was not conducted on eggplant specifically, the
results are from a closely related vegetable production system with a
similar life history and pest vulnerability.

BENEFITS OF FUMIGATION

Yield and Quality 

The following pepper trials describe yield and quality impacts that
would likely result if chloropicrin, metam-sodium, and methyl bromide
were no longer available in California and Southeastern U.S. eggplant
production.  In the absence of useful crop loss data for eggplant, this
assessment relies to a large extent on relevant information available
for peppers, a closely related  vegetable production system with a
similar life history and pest vulnerability.  Table 8 summarizes the
expected impacts.

California

In 1999 researchers in California conducted six weed control trials
(Smith & Mullen 1999).  The standard combination of napropamide plus
bensulide was compared to s-metolachlor, halosulfuron, and rimsulfuron. 
S-metolachlor (1.27 to 1.59 lb ai/acre) provided good control of
nightshade, shepherdspurse, sow thistle, and yellow nutsedge. 
Halosulfuron (0.031 to 0.062 lb ai/acre) provided good weed control but
was phytotoxic to peppers in all trials in which it was tested.  

A field experiment was conducted in New Mexico in 1995 and 1996 to
examine the effects of different irrigation methods on yields and 
Phytophthora root rot disease of chile pepper plants (Capsicum annum New
Mexico ‘6-4’) (Xie et al., 1999).  Three irrigation methods, daily
drip, 3-day drip, and alternate row furrow irrigation, were applied to
plots infested with P. capsici and uninfested plots.  For both years,
the drip irrigation (either daily or 3-day) created higher marketable
green pepper yields than the alternate row furrow irrigation (p <0.05),
and the yields between the daily and 3-day drip irrigation were
statistically similar.  The effect of irrigation on marketable combined
yields was similar to that on green chile yields.  In 1995, root rot
disease incidence in the infested plots was significantly higher under
alternate row furrow irrigation than for daily and 3-day drip
irrigation.  There was no disease development in the uninfested plots
regardless of the irrigation method.  The disease decreased green chile
yield by 55% (p <0.1), and combined yield (green + red chile) by 36% (p
<0.1) in 1995 compared to that in uninfested plots in alternate row
furrow irrigation.  In 1996, however, no disease occurred in any
treatment.  The results suggested that drip irrigation increases chile
yield through providing either favorable soil moisture conditions or
unfavorable conditions for Phytophthora propagation. 

Southeast U.S.

Nematode problems in eggplant are similar to those in tomato and pepper,
where root damage leads to reduced rooting volume and reduced water and
nutrient uptake.  Eggplant varieties produced in Florida are susceptible
to sting, stubby-root, and root-knot nematode (Crop Profile for Eggplant
in Florida, 2000).  On peppers, for instance, fruit size and numbers per
plant can be greatly reduced, and yield losses of 30 to 80 percent are
not unusual in soils heavily infested with Meloidogyne iincognita
(Mossler et al., 2006 and Noling 2005).  

Yellow nutsedge, a weed commonly present in Florida vegetable fields,
may substantially reduce crop yields when not controlled.  Soil
fumigation with methyl bromide effectively controls nutsedges, but
methyl bromide is being phased out of production and use in the United
States.  An experiment was conducted during four seasons (spring and
fall of 1999 and 2000) to determine the tolerance of bell pepper grown
at two in-row spacings (23 and 31 cm) to interference resulting from
planted yellow nutsedge tuber densities (0 to 120 tubers/m2).  Relative
to yields with no nutsedge, pepper fruit yields in each season were
reduced 10% with fewer than 5 nutsedge tubers/m2.  Yield losses
increased more rapidly with an increase in initial nutsedge density from
0 to 30 than from 30 to 120 tubers/m2.  With 30 nutsedge tubers/m2,
large fruit yield was reduced 54 to 74% compared to that with no
nutsedge.  Nutsedge shoots overtopped the pepper plants as early as 6
weeks after treatment when, with 15 tubers/m2, nutsedge interference
reduced pepper plant biomass by 10 to 47%. In the absence of methyl
bromide, weed control strategies with high efficacy against yellow
nutsedge will be needed for bell pepper production.

Table 6.  Eggplant Yield Loss Data1  

Alternative	Type of Pest Tested 	Range of Yield Loss	Best Estimate of
Yield Loss

1,3 dichloropropene + chloropicrin	Nutsedges, fungal pathogens - FL	20 -
100	29 %

Metam-sodium (with or without chloropicrin)	Nutsedges, fungal pathogens
- FL	30 - 55	44 %

No fumigation	Nutsedge in Florida (Motis, 2003)	54 to 74	64 %

No fumigation	Phytophthora root rot in New Mexico(Xie et al.,  1999)	36
- 55 	45 %

No fumigation but with mefenoxam Fungicide	Phytophthora root rot in
Michigan (Hausbeck, 2006)	5 - 42 

20% with mefenoxam	5 to 20 %

No fumigation	Phytophthora capsici in California (Cal Pepper, 2005)	49 %
49 %

No fumigation	Weeds in Connecticut (Ashley, 1999)	0.5 - 97	49 %

No fumigant	Meloidogyne incognita in Florida (Noling, 2005)	30 - 80	55 %

Overall Loss Estimate for All Alternatives to Pests	California 5 to 49 %

Southeast 29 to 44 %

1Data extrapolated from yield loss data available for peppers. 

Economic Benefits

In the following section we value the benefit of fumigant use in
eggplant production. This is done by comparing current eggplant
production to eggplant production without the use of fumigants, the
result of which is reduced yields and changed production costs.  

BEAD’s estimates of the benefits of the soil fumigants, conceptually,
are the improvements in production and/or reductions in cost resulting
from the pesticide’s use.  The benefits of a fumigants use are shared
between users of the pesticide, i.e., eggplant producers, and consumers
of eggplant and eggplant products.  Consumers benefit because higher
production and/or lower costs may translate into a cheaper and more
abundant supply of eggplant.  

BEAD uses a partial budget analysis to estimate the impacts of changes
in yields and production costs.  That is, we evaluate the consequences
on a typical acre of the crop grown, rather than attempt to assess the
impacts in the context of a whole enterprise, which could include
multiple crops under cultivation.  This approach allows the Agency to
compare losses to net operating revenue, which is defined as the
difference between gross revenue and variable operating costs, on a
per-acre basis.  The analysis ignores fixed costs, which are highly
dependent on land ownership and the size and diversity of the grower’s
operation, and therefore difficult to define on a per-acre basis.  As
such, this analysis may understate the impacts as a percentage of the
grower’s income.  

In the absence of yield loss data specific to eggplant, yield loss data
used in this analysis has been extrapolated from yield loss data
available for peppers. This represents an uncertainty in the analysis. 
The estimated benefits of fumigant use in California and southeastern
states of Florida and Georgia eggplant production are summarized in
Tables 7 and 8.  

California

Without the use of metam-sodium, California eggplant producers would
switch to a combination of 1,3-dichloropopene and chloropicrin.  This
would lead to yield losses of between 5 and 20% and losses in net
revenues of between 9 and 35%.  Higher losses would affect those fields
with higher pest infestation levels. Growers experiencing these upper
bound losses would likely not be able to sustain eggplant production. 
If chloropicrin is also no longer available, growers would experience
yield losses of 49% and 78% of net revenue.  This is an unsustainable
loss that would lead growers to cease the production of eggplant.  These
conclusions apply to that part of the California eggplant acreage that
is treated with one or more of the fumigants, about 20% or 300 acres
(Table 2).

If eggplant is no longer produced on these acres, the lost value of
production would be about $5 million and 150 thousand CWT of eggplant
production annually (Table 2).  Given that eggplant acreage can be put
to a different use, such as producing a different crop, these losses may
ultimately be somewhat less.

Table 7.  Per Acre Gross Revenue, Operating Costs, and Net Operating
Revenues, for Metam-sodium and Alternatives Use on California Eggplant,
Fresh Market.

	Metam-sodium	1,3 dichloropropene + chloropicrin	No Fumigation

Yield (CWT)	490	466 – 392	250

Price  per CWT	$33 	$33 	$33 

Gross Revenue  	$15,925	$15,129 - $12,740 	$8,122 

Fumigation Costs	$175	$200	$0

Estimated Yield Loss	0%	5% - 20%	49%

Growing Period Costs  	$2,168 	$2,193 	$1,993v

Harvest Costs  	$10,671 	$10,137 - $8,537	$5,442

Total Operating Costs  	$12,839	$12,330 - $10,730 	$7,435 

Net Operating Revenue  	$3,086	$2,798 - $2,010	$7,435

Percentage Change in Net Operating Revenue	0%	9% – 35%	78%

Source:  U.C. Cooperative Extension, 2005 Sample Costs to Produce
Eggplant, San Joaquin Valley , Prepared by Richard Molinar, et al.,  
HYPERLINK "http://www.agecon.ucdavis.edu/" 
http://www.agecon.ucdavis.edu/ . 

1. Includes the cost of fumigant and labor.

Southeast U.S.

Without the use of methyl bromide plus chloropicrin, Florida and Georgia
eggplant producers would switch to a combination of 1,3-dichloropopene,
chloropicrin, and two herbicide applications.  In south Florida, growers
are using an initial application of metam potassium followed by oxamyl
chemigation, later in the season (PMSP, 2004).  This would lead to yield
losses of between 29 and 55% and losses in net revenues of greater than
100%.  Higher losses would affect those fields with higher pest
infestation levels. Growers experiencing these losses would not likely
be able to sustain eggplant production.  If chloropicrin is also no
longer available, growers would experience even greater yield losses. 
These conclusions apply to that part of the Florida and Georgia eggplant
acreage that is treated with one or more of the fumigants, about 80% or
2,000 acres (Table 2).

If eggplant is no longer produced on these acres, lost annual production
would be valued at about $16 million and be approximately 500 thousand
CWT of eggplant (Table 2).  Given that eggplant acreage can be put to a
different use, such as producing a different crop, these losses may
ultimately be somewhat less.

Table 8. Per Acre Gross Revenue, Operating Costs, and Net Operating
Revenues for Methyl Bromide Plus Chloropicrin and Alternatives Use on
Southeastern U.S. Eggplant, Fresh Market.

	Methyl bromide + chloropicrin	1,3 dichloropropene + chloropicrin + 

s-metolachlor + halosulfuron1	s-metolachlor + halosulfuron

(no Fumigation) 1

Yield (CWT)	255	181 – 115	92

Price  per CWT	$32 	$32	$32 

Gross Revenue  	$8,160	$5,794 - $3,672	$2,938

Fumigation Costs, Weeds and Soil Borne Disease	$736 	$303	$303

Non-Fumigant Alternatives Costs	$0 	$50	$50

Estimated Yield Loss	0%	29% - 55%	64%

Growing Period Costs  	$4,715 	$4,332  	$4,029 

Harvest Costs  	$3,990 	$2,833 - 

$1,796  	$1,436 

Total Operating Costs  	$8,705 	$7,165 - $6,127 	$5,465 

Net Operating Revenue  	($545)	($1,371) - ($2,455) 	($2,528)

Percentage Change in Net Operating Revenue	0%	152% - 351%	364%

Source:  University of Georgia, Economic Analysis of Pepper Production,
Marketing and Management in Georgia, September 2005,   HYPERLINK
"http://www.ces.uga.edu/Agriculture/agecon/" 
www.ces.uga.edu/Agriculture/agecon/ ; Florida, Georgia, and Southeast
U.S. Methyl Bromide Critical Use Nomination, 2006.

1. Does not include additional costs of application for s-metolachlor +
halosulfuron.

Note, Cost data from Florida is used as a proxy for the Southeast U.S.
eggplant production region as a whole.  Eggplant production in the
Southeast U.S. is typically followed by a second crop, which also
derives benefit from fumigation.  This second crop is not represented in
this table. 

 

National Impacts

There are over 5,800 acres of eggplant grown in the U.S. annually.  If
fumigants are no longer available to eggplant producers who currently
rely on them for disease, weed and nematode control, given the magnitude
of expected yield losses, U.S. eggplant production would be severely
impacted.  Approximately one half of eggplant producing acres would be
impacted, potentially reducing U.S. eggplant production by 50%, or by
approximately $20 million annually.  Again, eggplant acreage could be
put to a different use, such as producing a different crop, so these
losses could be somewhat less. 

Given that fumigants are needed in eggplant production for up to 50% of
eggplant acreage, it is likely that consumer prices for eggplant would
increase.  This increase in consumer prices might offset some of the
impacts on growers.  We are unable to quantify this effect.  

CONCLUSIONS

This assessment measures the benefit of chloropicrin, metam-sodium, and
methyl bromide use for the control of nematodes, weeds, and soil borne
disease in U.S. eggplant production.  Fumigants are used in Florida and
Georgia, where chloropicrin in combination with methyl bromide is
applied to over 2,000 acres of eggplant, which is about 80% of the acres
grown.  Approximately 20% of California eggplant acreage is fumigated
with methyl bromide and chloropicrin or metam-sodium.  In total, nearly
half of U.S. eggplant production (2,500 acres) is fumigated.  These
target pests may cause yield losses of 5 to 20 percent in California and
29 to 55 percent in Georgia and Florida without the benefit of
fumigation.  Given these losses, BEAD anticipates that the total value
of U.S. eggplant production would decrease by about 50% or $20 million. 


Limitations to assessment

This document presents the assessment of the benefits provided by the
soil fumigants in the production of eggplant.  The following are
limitations of this analysis:

The assessment does not account for transition to new agronomic
practices such as a conversion to greenhouse production, introduction of
new growing areas, or the introduction of newer as yet unregistered
fumigants.  

The assessment is based on partial budget analysis and does not account
for price or income distribution effects resulting from changes in
supply.

Because there are no available crop loss data specific to eggplant, this
assessment is based on crop loss estimates available for pepper
production, which represents an uncertainty in the assessment.     

REFERENCES

Ashley, R. A.  1999. Action Thresholds for Weeds in Peppers.  Presented:
New England Vegetable & Berry Growers Conference. 1999. Sturbridge, MA.
Available at   HYPERLINK
"http://www.hort.uconn.edu/IPM/veg/htms/wdactthrppr.htm" 
http://www.hort.uconn.edu/IPM/veg/htms/wdactthrppr.htm 

California Minor Crops Council.  2004.   A Pest Management Strategic
Plan for Pepper Production in California.  Available at:  HYPERLINK
"http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/pdf/CAPepper.pdf" 
http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/pdf/CAPepper.pdf   

California Pepper Commission.  2005  Yield loss due to Phytophthora
capsici root rot, Red Bell Pepper Yield Loss, Deardorff Jackson Farms,
Ventura CA. 2005.  Letter in support of 2009 California Critical Use
Exemption Request for Peppers. 

Crop Profile for Bell Peppers in California.  2000.  Available at:   
HYPERLINK
"http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/CAbellpepper.html" 
http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/CAbellpepper.html 

Crop Profile for Eggplant in Florida.  2000.  Available at:    HYPERLINK
"http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/FLeggplant_.html" 
http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/FLeggplant_.html 

Crop Profile for Peppers (Bell) in Florida.  2006.  Available at:  

  HYPERLINK
"http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/FLbellpepper.html" 
http://www.ipmcenters.org/cropprofiles/docs/FLbellpepper.html 

Hausbeck, M. and B. Cortright.  2004.  Comparing Fumigants for the 
Control of Control of Phytophthora capsici in Vegetable Crops in
Vegetable Crops.  Methyl Bromide Alternatives Outreach presentation in
2004.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://www.mbao.org/2004/PowP/039Cortright%20%2039.pdf" 
http://www.mbao.org/2004/PowP/039Cortright%20%2039.pdf 

Hausbeck, M.  2006.  Vegetable Crop Advisory Team Alert newsletter. 
Vol. 21, No. 13, July 19, 2006.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://ipm.msu.edu/cat06veg/v07-19-06.htm #3" 
http://ipm.msu.edu/cat06veg/v07-19-06.htm #3 

Jahn, M.  2004.  Improving Phytophthora tolerance in open-pollinated
pepper varieties for California production.  2004 Research Report, Dept.
of Plant Breeding, Cornell Univ. to California Pepper Improvement
Foundation, California Pepper Commission..  Methyl Bromide Critical Use
Exemption for 2009 - CA Pepper Attachment 1.2.  

Mossler, M., M. and O. N. Nesheim.  2003.  Florida Crop/Pest Management
Profile: Eggplant.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/PI045"  http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/PI045 

Mossler, M., M. J. Aerts, and O. N. Nesheim.  2006.  Florida Crop/Pest
Management Profile: Bell Peppers.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/PI040"  http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/PI040 . 

Motis T.N., S.J. Locascio, J.P. Gilreath, J.P., W.M. Stall.  2003. 
Season-Long Interference of Yellow Nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus) with
Polyethylene-Mulched Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum). Weed Technology
Volume: 17 : 543-549.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://wssa.allenpress.com/wssaonline/?request=get-document&issn=0890-0
37X&volume=017&issue=03&page=0543" 
http://wssa.allenpress.com/wssaonline/?request=get-document&issn=0890-03
7X&volume=017&issue=03&page=0543  

Noling, J.W.  2005.    HYPERLINK "http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/NG032" \t
"_top"  Nematode Management in Tomatoes, Peppers and Eggplant , ENY-032.
 Entomology & Nematology Department,  Florida Cooperative Extension
Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of
Florida.  Available at:    HYPERLINK "http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/NG032" 
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/NG032 

Eggplant Pest Management Strategic Plan (PMSP).  2004.  Fort Lauderdale,
FL.  Available at:

	  HYPERLINK "http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/pdf/Eggplant.pdf" 
http://www.ipmcenters.org/pmsp/pdf/Eggplant.pdf 

Smith, R. and R. Mullen.  1999.  Weed Control Trials in Peppers.  Final
Report to California Pepper Commission, 1999.  Methyl Bromide Critical
Use Exemption for 2009.  CA Pepper Attachment 1.1

USDA NASS.  2002-2006.  Crop Production, Summary.  National Agricultural
Statistics Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, January.  Available
at:
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/MannUsda/viewDocumentInfo.do?documentID=
1047.

USDA NASS.  2005.  Agricultural Chemical Usage, 2004 Field Crops
Summary.  National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture, May.  Available at:   HYPERLINK
"http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/AgriChemUsFC//2000s/2005/Agri
ChemUsFC-05-18-2005.pdf" 
http://usda.mannlib.cornell.edu/usda/nass/AgriChemUsFC//2000s/2005/AgriC
hemUsFC-05-18-2005.pdf .

USDA ERS.  2006.  Organic Production.  USDA, Economic Research Service. 
2006.  Available at :    HYPERLINK
"http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/Organic/" 
http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/Organic/  

Xie, J., E. S. Cardenas, T. W. Sammis, M. M. Wall, D. Lindsey, and L. W.
Murray. 1999. Effects of irrigation method on chile pepper yield and
Phytophthora root rot incidence.  Ag. Water Management 42:127-142. 
Available at
http://weather.nmsu.edu/nmcrops/chile/Chile-phytophthora.htm

 PAGE   

Page  PAGE   2 

