UNITED
STATES
ENVIRONMENTAL
PROTECTION
AGENCY
WASHINGTON,
D.
C.
20460
April
13,
2006
OFFICE
OF
PREVENTION
PESTICIDES
AND
TOXIC
SUBSTANCES
Memorandum
SUBJECT:
Biological
and
Economic
Analysis
of
Dichlorvos
in
Greenhouses
FROM:
Don
Atwood,
Entomologist
Herbicide
and
Insecticide
Branch
Biological
and
Economic
Analysis
Division
(
7503C)

THRU:
Arnet
Jones,
Chief
Herbicide
and
Insecticide
Branch
Tim
Kiely,
Acting
Chief
Economic
Analysis
Branch
Biological
and
Economic
Analysis
Division
(
7503C)

TO:
Dayton
Eckerson/
Eric
Olson,
Chemical
Review
Manager
Reregistration
Branch
1
Special
Review
and
Reregistration
Division
(
7508C)

PRP
REVIEW
DATE:
March
31,
2006
SUMMARY
Dichlorvos
use
on
greenhouse
ornamentals
and
vegetables
is
minimal.
There
are
alternative
pesticides
for
each
use
site
which
would
provide
acceptable
control
in
the
absence
of
dichlorvos.
The
lack
of
market
share
for
dichlorvos
for
greenhouse
use
indicates
that
it
is
not
the
most
effective
material
to
control
the
target
pests
and
that
there
is
evidently
no
economic
basis
for
its
use.
BEAD
concludes
that
no
biological
or
economical
impacts
would
be
associated
with
the
absence
of
dichlorvos.
2
I.
SCOPE
AND
LIMITATIONS
OF
ASSESSMENT
The
scope
of
this
assessment
is
at
the
national
level
as
state
level
data
are
not
available.
In
addition,
this
assessment
encompasses
all
greenhouse
uses
(
ornamental
and
vegetable
production).
This
scenario
is
in
response
to
health
risks
(
residential
and
occupational)
as
identified
by
the
Health
Effects
Division
of
the
Office
of
Pesticide
Programs.

There
are
limits
to
this
assessment.
The
primary
limit
is
the
lack
of
available
data
associated
with
greenhouse
use
of
dichlorvos.
This
assessment
does
ignore
potential
changes
that
may
result
from
production
changes.
It
is
assumed
that
producers
will
not
shift
to
alternate
crops.

II.
GREENHOUSE
PRODUCTION
Greenhouse
production
in
the
US
includes
both
ornamental
and
greenhouse
vegetables.
In
1998,
the
US
Census
of
Horticulture
reported
1,015
greenhouse
food
production
operations.
A
total
of
31.6
million
square
feet
were
in
production
with
a
sale
revenue
of
222.6
million
dollars.
Greenhouse
food
crop
production
statistics
by
individual
crop
are
listed
in
Table
1.

Table
1.
Greenhouse
vegetable
statistics
by
crop
(
1998
US
Census
of
Horticulture)

Area
Used
Total
Sales
Food
Crop
Number
of
Operations
1,000
Sq
ft
%
of
total
$
1,000
%
of
total
Cucumbers
201
3018
9.54%
12216
5.49%

Herbs,
cut
fresh
192
4725
14.93%
30995
13.92%

Lettuce
129
1169
3.69%
9330
4.19%

Peppers,
sweet
or
hot
165
1507
4.76%
5277
2.37%

Strawberries
26
37
0.12%
49
0.02%

Tomatoes
715
17311
54.71%
117856
52.94%

Other
greenhouse
food
crops
193
3877
12.25%
46891
21.06%

US
Total
1015
31644
222624
In
2004,
the
USDA
report
on
floriculture
crops
indicated
11,099
growers
involved
in
greenhouse
floriculture
production
with
a
total
production
area
of
542
million
square
feet,
predominantly
plastic
film
structures.
Sales
in
2004
were
5.2
billion
dollars.
However,
this
is
probably
a
conservative
estimate
as
the
survey
only
included
operations
with
$
10,000+
sales.

III.
USE
OF
DICHLORVOS
TO
CONTROL
GREENHOUSE
PESTS
Dichlorvos
has
limited
use
in
either
greenhouse
production
of
ornamentals
plants
or
vegetables.
A
survey
of
greenhouse
producers
conducted
in
1996
did
not
list
any
respondents
using
dichlorvos.
In
most
states,
dichlorvos
is
no
longer
recommend
for
greenhouse
use.
3
According
to
EPA
data,
greenhouse
use
represents
<
1%
of
total
dichlorvos
sales.
It
is
estimated
that
2000
lbs
of
dichlorvos
are
used
annually
in
greenhouse
production.
USDA
data
for
floriculture
indicates
that
dichlorvos
was
only
used
by
1%
of
producers
in
2001.
A
total
of
500
lbs
of
dichlorvos
was
reported
used
by
nursery
and
floriculture
operations.
While
accurate
data
is
not
available
to
distinguish
between
amount
of
dichlorvos
used
for
greenhouse
vegetable
production
and
greenhouse
ornamental
production,
available
data
would
indicate
that
75%
of
dichlorvos
used
in
greenhouses
is
for
vegetable
production.

IV.
TARGET
PESTS
IN
GREENHOUSES
Dichlorvos
is
used
primarily
to
control
aphids,
mealybugs,
spider
mites,
thrips
and
whiteflies
in
greenhouse
vegetable
production.
Tomatoes,
cucumber,
and
lettuce
are
the
major
greenhouse
vegetable
crops
related
to
dichlorvos
use.
In
greenhouse
ornamental
production,
dichlorvos
is
used
to
control
aphids,
mealybugs,
fungus
gnats,
mealy
bugs,
spider
mites,
whiteflies,
and
occasionally
thrips.
For
both
greenhouse
crops,
most
damage
is
the
result
of
plant
distortion
from
pest
feeding
activity
or
disease
transmission.

A.
Aphids
­
Aphids
are
soft
bodied
sucking
insects
that
cluster
in
colonies
on
leaves
and
stems
of
the
host
plants.
In
greenhouse
operations,
aphids
multiply
rapidly
with
each
female
giving
live
birth
to
daughters
in
about
seven
days
after
its
own
birth.
Adult
aphids
can
give
birth
to
6
­
10
young
per
day
over
their
20
­
30
day
life
span
creating
enormous
populations
in
a
short
period.
Feeding
activity
causes
leaf
distortion
which
can
in
turn
protect
the
aphids
from
insecticide
applications.
The
honeydew
excrement
that
results
from
aphid
feeding
can
also
give
rise
to
ant
problems
and
may
result
in
black
sooty
mold
on
leaves.
In
addition,
aphids
are
capable
of
transmitting
viral
diseases.
Insecticide
applications
to
control
aphids
must
be
repeated
to
manage
infestations.
It
may
take
2
­
3
applications
at
3
­
7
day
intervals
to
achieve
control.
It
is
important
to
alternate
insecticides
to
prevent
development
of
resistance.

B.
Spider
mites
­
Spider
mites
are
sap
sucking
pests
that
attack
a
wide
range
of
plants.
This
pest
can
be
a
serious
and
persistent
problem.
Heavy
infestations
of
this
pest
can
result
in
fine
webbing
covering
the
entire
plant.
Leaf
feeding
results
in
speckled
or
mottled
leaf
appearance.
In
heavy
infestations,
leaves
may
turn
yellow
and
dry
up.
Plants
may
loose
vigor
and
die
under
severe
infestations.
The
life
cycle
for
spider
mites
is
7
days,
during
which
they
may
lay
200
eggs.
It
is
often
better
to
dispose
of
infested
plants
than
to
try
to
control
the
problem
with
insecticides.
Regardless,
infested
plants
must
be
isolated
to
reduce
potential
spread.
Mites
are
resistant
to
a
number
of
insecticides
and
it
is
often
necessary
to
make
repeated
applications
to
control
infestations.
It
is
typical
to
treat
2
­
3
times
at
a
5
day
interval.
It
is
important
to
treat
each
subsequent
mite
generation
with
an
insecticide
with
a
different
mode
of
action
to
prevent
development
of
resistance.
4
C.
Fungus
gnats
­
Fungus
gnats
were
once
thought
to
be
a
only
a
nuisance
pest
in
the
greenhouse.
However,
fungus
gnats
have
been
shown
to
cause
direct
feeding
damage
to
crops
and
are
now
considered
a
serious
pest.
The
fungus
gnat's
life
cycle
from
egg
to
adult
may
be
completed
in
as
little
as
three
to
four
weeks
depending
on
temperature.
Eggs
are
laid
in
cracks
and
crevices
in
the
media
surface
and
mature
in
four
to
six
days.
Fungus
gnat
larvae
feed
and
develop
for
about
two
weeks
at
72
°
F.
Pupation
occurs
in
the
soil.
After
four
to
five
days,
adults
emerge.
Overlapping
and
continuous
generations
make
control
difficult.

D.
Thrips
­
Thrips
are
tiny
insects
which
can
cause
economic
damage
when
they
infest
flowers,
buds,
and
young
fruits
of
a
crop.
Thrips
feed
almost
entirely
on
the
foliage
and
large
populations
cause
severe
damage.
Thrips
feed
by
rasping
the
plant
surface
and
sucking
up
the
exuded
sap.
Heavily
infested
leaves
have
a
mottled
or
silvery
appearance.
Eggs
are
deposited
into
slits
in
leaves
and
hatch
within
2
­
7
days.
Under
optimum
conditions
the
time
for
development
is
17
to
20
days.
The
adults
can
live
7
weeks
on
plants
growing
in
the
greenhouse.
All
stages
can
be
found
throughout
the
year
in
greenhouses.
Thrips
are
vectors
of
plant
diseases.

E.
Whiteflies
­
Whiteflies
are
serious
sap­
sucking
greenhouse
pests
which
develop
entirely
on
the
underside
of
leaves.
The
female
may
lay
up
to
150
eggs
at
a
rate
of
25
per
day.
The
newly
hatched
crawler
does
not
move
far
before
settling
down
to
feed.
The
4
instar
molts
into
pupal
stage
from
which
the
adult
emerges.
A
complete
life
cycle
may
occur
in
21
­
36
days.
Insecticides
which
are
effective
against
the
adult
stage
are
usually
ineffective
against
the
immature
stages.
Due
to
prolonged
adult
emergence,
insecticide
application
must
occur
frequently.
It
is
common
to
spray
2
­
3
times
at
3
­
4
day
intervals
to
control
heavy
infestation.
However,
insect
growth
regulators
targeted
at
the
immature
stages
can
be
applied
at
7
­
14
day
intervals.

F.
Leafminers
­
Leafminer
larvae
tunnel
through
leaf
tissue
causing
whitish
winding
tunnels
which
reduce
yield
and
damage
appearance.
Mated
leafminer
females
produce
stipples
on
leaves
with
their
ovipositor
to
insert
an
egg
into
the
leaf.
Larvae
hatch
in
2
days,
and
develop
through
3
instars
while
producing
the
mine
over
a
period
of
7
to
8
days.
The
last
stage
emerges
from
the
leaf
and
drops
to
the
ground
where
is
inflates
its
last
skin
for
the
pupa
or
puparium.
Adult
flies
emerge
from
the
puparium
in
7
to
11
days.
Duration
of
the
life
cycle
varies
with
temperature
and
time
of
year.
In
the
greenhouse,
leafminers
can
breed
throughout
the
year.

G.
Mealy
bugs
­
All
parts
of
the
plant
may
be
attacked
by
mealybugs.
Mealybugs
are
soft
bodied
insects
which
feed
on
plant
sap.
The
waxy
secretion
which
covers
their
bodies
provide
protection
from
contact
insecticides.
Mealybugs
may
give
5
birth
to
live
young
or
lay
eggs
depending
on
the
species.
This
pest
also
produces
large
amounts
of
honeydew
which
can
lead
to
sooty
mold
on
leaves
and
other
plant
parts.
All
parts
of
the
plant
may
be
attacked
by
mealybugs.

V.
ALTERNATIVE
PESTICIDES
TO
CONTROL
GREENHOUSE
PESTS
A.
VEGETABLE
PRODUCTION
A
number
of
alternative
insecticides
are
available
for
pest
control
in
greenhouse
vegetable
production.
However,
it
is
not
possible
to
generalize
across
all
greenhouse
vegetable
crops
as
restrictions
apply
for
specific
active
ingredient
use
on
individual
crops.
Alternative
insecticides
to
dichlorvos
for
the
3
major
greenhouse
vegetable
crops
ares
provided
in
Table
2.
Efficacy
data
for
the
alternative
insecticides
are
not
available.
Therefore,
it
assumed
the
recommended
insecticides
are
equivalent
in
efficacy
to
dichlovos.

Table
2.
Alternative
pesticides
to
dichlorvos
for
control
of
greenhouse
vegetable
pests.

PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
Restriction
nicotene
azadirachtin
cinnamaldehyde
Botanical
pyrethrum
Organophosphates
naled
Pyrethroids
pyrethrin
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
endosulfan
tomatoes
only
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
Aphids
Horticultural
oil
horticultural
oil
cinnamaldehyde
Botanical
neem
oil
Organophosphates
naled
Pyrethroids
pyrethrin
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
endosulfan
tomatoes
only
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
Mites
Horticultural
oil
horticultural
oil
Botanical
azadirachtin
Fungus
gnat
Pyrethroids
pyrethrin
6
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
Restriction
nicotene
azadirachtin
Botanical
pyrethrum
endosulfan
cucumber,
tomato
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
methoxychlor
Pyrethroids
pyrethrin
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
Horticultural
oil
horticultural
oil
Thrips
Misc
formetenate
hcl
TX
only
Botanical
azadirachtin
Organophosphates
naled
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
endosulfan
tomatoes
only
Pyrethroids
pyrethrin
Whiteflies
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
B.
ORNAMENTAL
PRODUCTION
There
are
a
greater
number
of
alternative
insecticides
which
can
be
used
for
pest
control
in
greenhouse
ornamental
production.
A
list
of
the
general
insecticides
available
for
the
major
pests
is
provided
in
Table
3.
It
must
be
considered
that
a
large
number
of
different
ornamental
plants
are
grown
in
greenhouse
production.
It
is
beyond
the
scope
of
this
assessment
to
identify
crop
specific
active
ingredients
for
each
individual
crop
(
re­
entry
issues,
phytoxicity,
etc.).
Therefore,
all
listed
active
ingredients
may
not
be
applicable
to
each
crop.
Efficacy
data
are
not
available
for
the
alternative
insecticides.
Therefore,
it
assumed
the
recommended
insecticides
are
equivalent
in
efficacy
to
dichlorvos.

Table
3.
Alternative
pesticides
to
dichlorvos
for
control
of
greenhouse
ornamental
pests.

PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

azadirachtin
4­
12
cinnanaldehyde
4
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
Horticultural
oils
horticultural
oil
4
Aphids
Insect
growth
regulators
fenoxycarb
12
7
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

kinoprene
4
acephate
24
Organophosphates
chlorpyrifos
12
bifenthrin
12
cyfluthrin
12
fenpropathrin
24
fluvalinate
12
Pyrethroids
permethrin
12
Carbamate
methiocarb
24
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
endosulfan
24
Spinosad
spinosyn
4
Choronicotinyl
imidacloprid
12
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
12
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
Horticultural
oils
horticultural
oils
4
kinoprene
4
pyriproxyfen
12
Insect
growth
regulators
fenoxicarb
12
acephate
24
chlorpyrifos
12
Organophosphate
diazinon
12
Carbamate
methiocarb
24
bifenthrin
12
cyfluthrin
12
deltamethrin
12
Pyrethroids
permethrin
12
Fungus
gnats
Triazine
cyromazine
12
azadirachtin
4­
12
Botanical
nicotene
4
Insect
growth
regulator
cyromazine
12
Leafminers
8
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

acephate
24
chlorpyrifos
12
malathion
12
Organophosphate
naled
24
bifenthrin
12
Pyrethroids
permethrin
12
Spinosad
spinosyn
4
Macrocyclic
lactone
abamectin
12
azadirachtin
12
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
Carbamate
carbaryl
12
Choronicotinyl
imidacloprid
12
Horticultural
Oils
horticultural
oils
4
Insect
Growth
Regulators
kinoprene
4
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
12
acephate
24
chlopryifos
12
diazinon
12
Organophosphate
naled
24
bifenthrin
12
cyfluthrin
12
deltamethrin
12
fenpropathrin
24
fluvalinate
12
lambda­
cyhalathrin
24
Pyrethroid
permethrin
12
Mealy
bugs
Pyridazinone
pyridaben
12
cinamaldehyde
4
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
Carbamate
methiocarb
24
Spider
mites
9
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

Carboxamide
hexythiazox
12
dicofol
48
oxythioquinox
24
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
endosulfan
24
Horticultural
oils
horticultural
oil
4
Inorganic
sulfur
24
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
12
Macrocyclic
lactone
avermectin
12
acephate
24
chlorpyrifos
12
diazinon
12
Organophosphate
naled
24
Phenoxypyrazole
fenpyroximate
12
bifenthrin
12
deltamethrin
12
fenpropathrin
24
fluvalinate
12
Pyrethroid
lambda­
cyhalothrin
24
Pyridazinone
pyridaben
12
Spinosad
spinosyn
4
Sulfite
ester
propargite
168
Tetrazine
clofentezine
12
Pyrrole
chlorfenapyr
12
Misc
bifenazate
azadirachtin
4­
12
nicotene
4­
24
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
carbaryl
12
fenoxycarb
12
Carbamate
methiocarb
24
Thrips
Chloronicotinyls
imidacloprid
12
10
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

Horticultural
oils
horticultural
oil
4
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
12
Macrocyclic
lactone
avermectin
12
acephate
24
chlorpyrifos
12
diazinin
12
Organophosphate
naled
24
bifenthrin
12
cyfluthrin
12
fluvalinate
12
lambda­
cyhalothrin
24
Pyrethroid
permethrin
12
Spinosad
spinosyn
4
Misc
formetenate
hcl
TX
only
azadirachtin
4­
12
Botanical
pyrethrum
12
Carbamate
fenoxycarb
12
endosulfan
24
Chlorinated
hydrocarbon
oxythioquinox
24
Chloronicotinyls
imidacloprid
12
Horticultural
oils
horticultural
oil
4
kinoprene
4
pyriproxyfen
12
Insect
growth
regulators
diflubenzuron
12
Insecticidal
soap
insecticidal
soap
12
Macrocyclic
lactone
avermectin
12
acephate
24
chlorpyrifos
12
diazinon
12
Organophosphate
naled
24
Whiteflies
11
PEST
CLASS
ACTIVE
INGREDIENT
REI
(
HOURS)

bifenthrin
12
cyfluthrin
12
fenpropathrin
24
fluvalinate
12
lambda­
cyhalothrin
24
permethrin
12
Pyrethroid
resmethrin
24
Pyridazinone
pyridaben
12
Pyridine
azamethine
pymetrozine
12
VI.
CULTURAL
CONTROL
OF
GREENHOUSE
PESTS
There
are
numerous
cultural
activities
which
can
reduce
the
need
for
insecticidal
control
of
pests
in
greenhouse
crops,
both
vegetable
and
ornamental.
However,
it
is
doubtful
if
cultural
alternatives
alone
can
provide
adequate
pest
control
though
should
be
part
of
a
general
greenhouse
IPM
program.
Sanitation
and
exclusion
can
lessen
reliance
on
insecticides.

Sanitation
must
include
elimination
of
all
possible
sources
of
the
pest.
This
should
include
removal
of
weeds
inside
and
near
the
outside
the
greenhouse
which
may
harbor
pests.
In
addition,
pests
may
be
dramatically
decreased
by
creating
a
10­
30
foot
vegetation­
free
zone
around
the
outside
perimeter
of
the
greenhouse
(
particularly
near
vents
and
openings).
All
debris
from
previous
crops
and
infested
plants
should
be
removed
and
the
greenhouse
cleaned.
Leaving
the
greenhouse
empty
for
one
week
prior
to
the
next
crop
enables
removal
of
all
pest
stages
and
starves
remaining
adults.
It
is
also
important
to
initiate
a
clean
stock
program.
All
arriving
plants
should
be
quarantined
and
inspected
for
pests.
Finally,
insect
screens
should
be
used
to
physically
exclude
lightweight
airborne
insects
from
the
greenhouse
through
doors,
cooling
pads,
and
ventilation
units.

VII.
BIOLOGICAL
CONTROL
ALTERNATIVES
Biological
control,
the
use
of
living
organisms
to
control
crop
pests,
can
be
achieved
in
greenhouses
through
the
release
of
predatory
mites,
pirate
bugs,
soil­
dwelling
mites,
and
parasitic
insects.
However,
biological
control
is
much
more
management
intensive
and
requires
greater
knowledge
of
the
pests
and
their
biology.
Numerous
factors
influence
the
effectiveness
of
a
biological
control
program
including;
release
rate,
reliable
supply
of
natural
enemies,
timing,
placement,
temperature
and
pesticide
use.
In
addition,
level
of
control
with
biological
control
agents
will
vary
according
to
crop
species.
It
is
not
possible
to
assess
the
potential
impact
of
biological
control
for
all
greenhouse
crops
(
vegetable
and
ornamental).
While
biological
control
12
can
play
an
important
role
in
reducing
insecticide
use,
it
is
doubtful
if
this
method
alone
would
provide
acceptable
levels
of
control.

VIII.
BIOLOGICAL
IMPORTANCE
OF
DICHLORVOS
FOR
GREENHOUSE
PESTS
Dichlorvos
is
not
one
of
the
major
insecticides
currently
used
for
greenhouse
pest
control.
Little
impact
would
be
seen
if
dichlorvos
was
not
available
for
use
on
either
greenhouse
ornamentals
or
greenhouse
vegetables.
Use
of
the
available
alternative
pesticides
in
conjunction
with
a
sanitation/
exclusion
and
monitoring
program
would
provide
adequate
pest
control
in
the
absence
of
dichlorvos.

IX.
ECONOMIC
IMPORTANCE
OF
DICHLORVOS
FOR
GREENHOUSE
PESTS
Dichlorvos
is
but
one
of
many
insecticides
which
are
recommended
for
control
of
vegetable
and
ornamental
pests
in
greenhouses.
Considering
the
number
of
alternative
insecticides
and
the
current
lack
of
market
share
for
dichlorvos,
it
can
be
concluded
that
dichlorvos
is
not
economically
important
for
the
control
of
greenhouse
pests.

X.
REFERENCES
1.
1998
Census
of
Horticultural
Specialties.
1998.
USDA/
NASS.
http://
www.
nass.
usda.
gov/
census/
census97/
horticulture/
horticulture.
htm
2.
Floriculture
Crops
2004
Summary.
2005.
USDA/
NASS.
http://
usda.
mannlib.
cornell.
edu/
reports/
nassr/
other/
zfc­
bb/
floran05.
pdf
3.
Biologic
and
Economic
Assessment
of
Pest
Management
in
the
United
States
Greenhouse
and
Nursery
Industry.
Cooperative
Extension
Service,
University
of
Georgia.
NAPIAP
Report
Number
I­
CA­
96.

4.
Quantitative
Usage
Analysis
for
Dichlorvos.
1998.
US
EPA.

5.
Greenhouse
Mites
And
Their
Management.
1997.
Texas
Agricultural
Extension
Service.
http://
insects.
tamu.
edu/
extension/
bulletins/
uc/
uc­
030.
html
6.
Greenhouse
Pesticides
and
Pesticide
Safety.
1997.
Cooperative
Extension
Service,
University
of
Kentucky.
Http://
www.
ca.
uky.
edu/
agc/
pubs/
pat/
pat4/
pat4.
pdf
7.
Tomato,
Greenhouse.
Excerpt
from
New
England
Vegetable
Management
Guide
­
Greenhouse
Tomatoes.
http://
www.
nevegetable.
org/
index.
cfm?
objectid=
D5B788CE­
8C7F­
4CFE­
5299B78534958DE9
13
8.
Controlling
Whiteflies
on
Greenhouse
Tomatoes.
1999.
MSUCares,
Mississippi
State
University
Extension
Service.
Vol.
00
No.
02
February
18,
2000.
http://
msucares.
com/
newsletters/
vegpress/
2000/
200002.
html
9.
Integrated
Pest
Management
for
Greenhouse
Crops.
1999.
Appropriate
Technology
Transfer
for
Rural
Areas
(
ATTRA).
http://
attra.
ncat.
org/
attra­
pub/
gh­
ipm.
html
10.
The
Flower
Fields
­
Federal
Insect
and
Mite
Control
Chart.
May
2004.
Paul
Ecke
Ranch.
http://
www.
ecke.
com/
html/
fastfax/
pdfs/
FF%
20insect.
pdf
11.
Controls
for
Greenhouse
Ornamental
Insect
Pests.
2004.
University
of
Kentucky
Entomology.
http://
www.
uky.
edu/
Agriculture/
Entomology/
entfacts/
trees/
ef421.
htm
13.
Sweetpotato/
Silverleaf
Whitefly
Management
on
Texas
Greenhouse­
Grown
Poinsettia.
1997.
Texas
Agricultural
Extension
Service.
UC­
029.
http://
entowww.
tamu.
edu/
extension/
bulletins/
uc/
uc­
029.
html
14.
Crop
Profile
for
Poinsettia
in
Ohio.
2000.
USDA/
NASS
http://
www.
ipmcenters.
org/
cropprofiles/
docs/
OHPoinsettias.
html
15.
Chapter
V
­
Insect
Control.
Insect
Control
for
Greenhouse,
Ornamental,
and
House
Plants.
2006.
2006
North
Carolina
Agricultural
Chemical
Manual.
http://
ipm.
ncsu.
edu/
agchem/
5­
17.
pdf
16.
2005
Ohio
Vegetable
Production
Guide.
Ohio
State
University
Extension.
Bulletin
672­
05.
http://
ohioline.
osu.
edu/
b672/

17.
Controls
for
Greenhouse
Vegetable
Insect
Pests.
2004.
Kentucky
Cooperative
Extension
Service.
http://
www.
uky.
edu/
Ag/
Entomology/
entfacts/
veg/
ef306.
htm
18.
Greenhouse
Tomatoes:
Pest
Management
in
Mississippi.
2006.
Extension
Service
of
Mississippi
State
University.
Publication
1861.
http://
msucares.
com/
pubs/
publications/
p1861.
pdf
19.
Chapter
V
­
Insect
Control.
­
Insect
Control
for
Greenhouse
Vegetables.
2006.
2006
North
Carolina
Agricultural
Chemicals
Manual.
http://
ipm.
ncsu.
edu/
agchem/
5­
11.
pdf
20.
Commercial
Ornamentals
Insect
Control.
2006.
Alabama
Cooperative
Extension
Service.
14
http://
www.
aces.
edu/
pubs/
docs/
A/
ANR­
0500­
B/
VOL2­
2006/
commercial_
ornamentals_
insect.
pdf
21.
Poinsettia
Federal
Insect
and
Mite
Control
Chart.
May
2004.
Paul
Ecke
Ranch.
http://
www.
ecke.
com/
html/
fastfax/
pdfs/
Poin%
20insect.
pdf
22.
Pest
Management
in
the
United
States
Greenhouse
and
Nursery
Industry:
V.
Insect
and
Mite
Control.

23.
Crop
Profile
for
Greenhouse
Crops
in
Oklahoma.
1999.
USDA.
http://
www.
ipmcenters.
org/
cropprofiles/
docs/
okgreenhousecrops.
html
24.
Western
Flower
Thrips
in
Commercial
Greenhouses.
2006.
University
of
Minnesota
Extension
Service.
http://
www.
extension.
umn.
edu/
distribution/
horticulture/
DG7374.
html
25.
Managing
Aphids.
2000.
University
of
Massachusetts
Extension.
2003.
http://
www.
umass.
edu/
umext/
floriculture/
fact_
sheets/
pest_
management/
aphids.
html
26.
Fact
Sheet
­
Integrated
Management
of
Thrips
on
Greenhouse
Ornamentals.
2001.
Rutgers
Cooperative
Extension.
FS987
http://
www.
rcre.
rutgers.
edu/
pubs/
publication.
asp?
pid=
FS987
27.
Whiteflies
in
Commercial
Greenhouse
Poinsettia
Production.
1999.
University
of
Minnesota
Extension.
FO­
07373
http://
www.
extension.
umn.
edu/
distribution/
horticulture/
DG7373.
html
28.
UC
Pest
Management
Guidelines
­
Floriculture
and
Ornamental
Nurseries
Insects
and
Mites.
2001.
http://
www.
ipm.
ucdavis.
edu/
PMG/
selectnewpest.
floriculture.
html
29.
Fungus
Gnats
are
Serious
Pests.
2006.
University
of
Connecticut
Integrated
Pest
Management.
http://
www.
hort.
uconn.
edu/
IPM/
greenhs/
htms/
fngnatser.
htm
