AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS 

THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 

Epiphytic lichens used in air quality monitoring from Kah Shakes Cove,
Misty Fiords

        

Karen L. Dillman*, Linda H. Geiser ** and Gregory Brenner***

USDA Forest Service, Tongass National Forest, PO Box 309, Petersburg
Alaska 99833

USDA Forest Service, Suislaw National Forest, PO Box 1148, Corvallis,
Oregon 97339

Pacific Analytics LLC, PO Box 1064, Corvallis, Oregon  97339

December 2007



I. TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents	

Executive Summary and Acknowledgements	i

Introduction	3

Methods	8

Summary of Percent Sulfur Analysis	16

Summary of Percent Nitrogen Analysis	30

Summary of Al Analysis Results	40

Summary of B Analysis Results 	52

Summary of Ba Analysis Results	64

Summary of Be Analysis Results 	75

Summary of Ca Analysis Results 	76

Summary of Cd Analysis Results 	87

Summary of Co Analysis Results	100

Summary of Cr Analysis Results 	111

Summary of Cu Analysis Results	123

Summary of Fe Analysis Results	135

Summary of K Analysis Results	147

Summary of Li Analysis Results 	159

Summary of Mg Analysis Results	170

Summary of Mn Analysis Results 	181

Summary of Mo Analysis Results	194

Summary of Na Analysis Results 	205

Summary of Ni Analysis Results 	217

Summary of P Analysis Results 	229

Summary of Pb Analysis Results 	241

Summary of Rb Analysis Results	253

Summary of Si Analysis Results 	254

Summary of Sr Analysis Results	265

Summary of Ti Analysis Results	276

Summary of V Analysis Results 	287

Summary of Zn Analysis Results 	298

Thresholds	310

Conclusions	311		.

Literature Cited	320

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Air quality on the Tongass National Forest and in Southeast Alaska is
very good.  The prevailing winds off the Pacific Ocean, the relatively
small amount of industrial development and population centers, and the
general lack of smoke from wildland fire all contribute to maintaining
clean air in the region.  However, localized air pollution from sources
such as mining operations, marine vessels and cruise ships, wood-burning
stoves, vehicle exhaust, diesel power and asphalt plants, incinerators,
and unpaved roads all contribute to the deterioration of air quality
that can impact resources on the Tongass National Forest.  Additionally,
trans-Pacific pollutants such as nitrogen are a growing concern for all
of western North America. .  

Federal land managers, including the Forest Service, are required to
protect, manage and improve (where appropriate) air quality on National
Forest Lands by; 1) the Clean Air Act of 1970 (CCA) and its amendments
(Sec 165 (d) (2) (B), 2) the Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resource
Planning Act of 1974 as amended by the National Forest Management Act
(NFMA) (16 U.S.C. 1602), and 3) the Federal Land Management Policy Act
of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.).  Forest Service managers are also
directed to monitor the effects of air pollution and atmospheric
deposition on forest resources (FSM 2580.44).  Furthermore, the
Chief’s 10-Year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge (10YWSC) identifies
air as one of the ten most critical challenge elements for wilderness
stewardship.  Several tasks for wilderness managers concerning air are
to determine if air quality in wilderness is changing, and to develop
strategies for improvement.  These wilderness stewardship goals and
other directives can only be accomplished through establishing a
baseline for air quality values and monitoring of air quality.  

Since 1989, air quality biomonitoring has been an integral part of
natural resource management on the Tongass National Forest.  Lichens are
well known sensitive receptors for air pollution and are used as
biomonitors of air quality worldwide.  Some species of lichens are very
tolerant of containments; others are very intolerant and can succumb due
to high levels of contaminants over time.  The most immediate benefit of
biomonitoring is the ability to map conditions at a sampling intensity
(spatial and temporal) which is prohibitively expensive using instrument
monitors.  Lichens are intimately tied to local conditions.  Along with
moisture from the surrounding environment, airborne contaminants are
absorbed easily into the lichen thalli and become concentrated in the
lichen tissues.  Through lichen biomonitoring, areas needing additional
instrument monitoring for human health concerns can also be identified. 
Elemental concentration of contaminants in lichens varies by lichen
species, the amount of precipitation , and the exposure time to wet and
dry deposition.  Worldwide ranges are used for certain contaminants
expected at both polluted and clean environments (i.e. natural
background levels) to help determine if enhancements are anthropogenic
or natural.  

Results of the most recent biomonitoring initiative using lichens are
reported here, its objectives were to: 1) Establish monitoring sites in
wilderness areas that were not part of the baseline monitoring study of
1989-1994 (10YWSC, FSM 2580.44), 2) Perform elemental analysis of
lichens from wilderness areas that were part of the initial baseline
monitoring study to detect possible changes in concentrations of plant
nutrients and metal-containing contaminants over time (10YWSC, FSM
2580.44), 3) Determine whether relationships exist between element
concentrations in lichens and several physiographic site
characteristics, 4) Establish Forest-wide provisional threshold levels
for four lichen species and 27 elements (NFMA, FSM 2850.44), 5) Identify
areas on the Forest where element concentrations in lichens are elevated
above threshold (NFMA), 6) At locations where thresholds are exceeded,
determine whether enhancement is due to anthropogenic or natural sources
(10YWSC, NFMA, FSM 2580.44), and 7) Determine patterns of contaminant
accumulation in lichens near downtown Juneau on Mt Roberts and at Greens
Creek mining facility on Admiralty Island (FSM 2580.44).  Monitoring
locations outside wilderness near known polluted areas will be used in
future modeling of air pollution gradients in the Alaska Region. 

Elements analyzed simultaneously in lichens at the University of
Minnesota Soil Laboratory with the inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrophotometry (ICP_AES) method were: Al, B, Ba, Be, Ca, Cd,
Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, P, Pb, Rb, Si, Sr, Ti, V and
Zn (expressed in ppm).  Total sulfur and nitrogen were analyzed
separately with a slightly different method.  Provisional threshold
levels for all elements were estimated for four lichen species through
the use of; 1) ICP-AES contaminant concentrations measured in Tongass
National Forest lichens from 1989 to 2005, and 2) the 97.5% quantiles
for contaminant concentrations in lichens from sites that are relatively
free from human disturbance and pollution effects.  Provisional
thresholds are the upper most limits for element concentrations expected
in target lichen species from background (clean) sites.  Concentrations
above threshold can be considered elevated due to enhancement from
natural or anthropogenic sources.  Of the 127 monitoring sites with
elemental data, 88 were used to calculate thresholds.  

Except the Maurelle Islands wilderness, all wilderness areas on the
Tongass National Forest contain; 1) at least two lichen biomonitoring
plots, 2) lichen tissue analyzed for elemental content and 3) epiphytic
lichen community presence/absence and abundance data available for
future analysis.  There were no significant differences in the elemental
content from five wilderness areas and one Research Natural Area (RNA)
near a wilderness that had repeated tissue data (Kootznoowoo, Misty
Fiords, Tebenkof, Pleasant Island, and Karta Lake wilderness areas and
Pikes Lake RNA).  No significant relationships were found between
elemental content in lichens and physiographic characteristics such as
latitude, longitude, precipitation and elevation across the Tongass.  

Of the 127 monitoring sites, 58 contained at least one lichen species
that was at or above the threshold for one or more elements.  Twenty of
the 58 are in wilderness areas.  Most of the elevated concentrations of
certain elements in lichens from wilderness areas were likely due to
natural variation, possibly enhanced by salt spray in exposed locations
(e.g. Ca, Mg, K, S, and Mn), local geology or windblown soils (e.g. Al,
Ba, Li, Si, Ni, Ti).  Additionally, some lichens from wilderness
monitoring sites at beach locations were above threshold for elements
such as sulfur and nitrogen (i.e. Coronation, Warren and Tebenkof). 
Although ocean spray is likely the source for these elements, the bays
in these wildernesses are also popular marine vessel anchorages where
fossil fuel combustion releases nitrogen and sulfur containing
emissions.  

In areas near human activities outside wilderness, lichens found to be
enhanced with contaminants may be due to unpaved road dust, vehicle
exhaust, power plants and other small industries, and past mining
activities.  The lichens analyzed near the Sitka pulp mill from the
early 1990’s were above threshold in many contaminants including S and
heavy metals.  Future work will focus on going back to Sitka to
determine if levels have dropped due to the closure of the mill.  The
ICP-AES analysis does not differentiate as to the source or type of
compounds analyzed (such as the many compounds containing S both from
anthropogenic and natural sources).  Therefore, knowledge of the area
and historic and current human uses are used to infer the sources of the
elevated elements.  

Lichens from the Greens Creek Mine vicinity contained more elements
above threshold than any other monitoring site on the Tongass National
Forest.  From a site in the vicinity of the tailings pile, 19 elements
were above threshold, including S, N, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn.  Two
locations near the mine portal were sampled; lichens from approximately
250 ft away from the portal had fewer elements above threshold than the
lichens near the entrance to the portal (7 compared to 12).  Contaminant
levels of certain heavy metals in some lichen species were within the
worldwide ranges considered enhanced due to mining and smelter
activities.  Future establishment of monitoring sites in a gradient of
distances away from the mining activities may help determine at what
distance contaminant levels in lichens drop below threshold.  

Lichens from Mt Roberts were above thresholds in many elements; 13
elements at the 175 ft elevation (including S, N, Cu, Fe, Cr, P, K and
Ni), five elements at the 600 ft elevation (S, K,P, V and Ni), four
elements at the 910 ft elevation (K S, Zn, P), two elements at the 1241
ft elevation (K and P) and three elements at the 1750 ft elevation (Zn,
K, P).  The contaminent levels in lichens from Mt Roberts were enhanced
by several sources including vehicle exhaust, diesel generators, wood
stoves, past mining, and cruise ship emissions.  The main source of
sulfur and nitrogen found in lichens from Mt Roberts may be due to
burning of fossil fuels by the cruise ships and other vehicles in
downtown Juneau.  To address human and ecosystem health concerns, a
gradient of monitoring sites should be established in the area to
determine how far the impacts from burning of fossil fuels in downtown
Juneau are detected in lichens. 

Elevated contaminants in lichens were more indicative of localized
emission and dusts rather than poor regional air quality.  Enhanced
concentrations of certain elements in lichens are evidence that human
activities near and on the Forest generate air pollution and the
associated airborne contaminants are being introduced into the
ecosystem.  However, natural sources of some elements can also be high
in lichens.  Lichens from polluted and clean areas exist in dynamic
equilibrium with the environmental conditions in which they are growing.
 Certain containments can affect photosynthesis and other metabolic
processes in lichens more readily than others, such as sulfur, nitrogen,
and some heavy metals.  Additional work is needed to combine elemental
analysis with the diversity and abundance of expected lichen species.  A
community analysis of epiphytic lichens would provide a sensitive tool
for land managers to detect status and trends in air quality on the
Forest in general and around local or stationary sources

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The recent biomonitoring program with lichens was prompted through the
keen interest of the Tongass National Forest wilderness managers.  In
their desire to attain Tongass wilderness areas to national standards of
wilderness management for air quality they were instrumental in having
lichen plots established in most wilderness areas.  Rich Fisher and the
USDA Forest Service Air Program provided financial support during the
initiation of this recent program.  Alaska Region Air Program and
resource managers Ann Puffer and Dave Mott, and Tongass National Forest
Wilderness Program manager Bill Tremblay provided additional support to
complete this work.  Region 6 Air Program and the Siuslaw National
Forest provided technical support, interpretation of the results, and
data base management of the elemental and community data.  Much
appreciation is owed to Anne Ingersoll from Region 6, and Jim Riley who
carefully entered the lichen data into the R6 database.  Gina Siroy,
(GIS Tongass)  assisted in creating the GIS map of plot locations.  Many
thanks to the people who have helped establish biomonitoring sites:
Albert Faure and Carolyn Morehouse (State of Alaska Department of
Environmental Conservation Commercial Passenger Vessel Compliance
Program) Steve Hohensee (Minerals Specialist USFS), Kerry Lear (Greens
Creek), Chiska Derr (Army Corps of Engineers-Juneau ), Brad Kreickhause
(Botanist USFS), Steve Trimble (Ecologist, USFS), Patti Krosse
(Ecologist, USFS), Rick L Turner (Ecologist USFS), Barb Schrader
(Regional Ecologist USFS), Mary Clemens (Recreation Forester USFS),
Kevin Hood (Wilderness Ranger USFS), Tim Lydon (Lead Wilderness Ranger
USFS), John Neary (Wilderness Field Manager USFS), Stephanie Clemens
(Botanist USFS), Joni Johnson (Ecologist USFS), Kyle Kinsman (Biological
Technician USFS), Mary Beth Nelson (Recreation Planner USFS), Mary
Emerick (Wilderness Manager USFS),  (Brad Hunter (Wilderness Manager
USFS), Carin Christensen (Wilderness Ranger USFS), Chris Prew
(Wilderness Manager USFS), and Dave Rak (Wilderness Manager USFS).

III. INTRODUCTION

III.I History of air quality biomonitoring with lichens on National
Forests in Alaska

The United States Congress enacted the Clean Air Act (CAA) in 1970 and
its amendments in 1977 and 1990 in response to an increased awareness of
the nationwide consequences of air pollution and environmental
degradation.  Under the CAA the Federal Land Manager has the
responsibility, specifically the Regional Forester for Alaskan national
forests, to monitor air pollution and to protect this resource.  Other
national air mandates followed include: 1) The Forest and Rangeland
Renewable Resource Planning Act of 1974 as amended by the National
Forest Management Act (16 U.S.C. 1602), 2) The Federal Land Management
Policy Act of 1976 (43 U.S.C. 1701 et seq.) 3) Forest Service Manual
2580.44, and 4) Chief’s 10 year Wilderness Stewardship Challenge. 

In response to the national mandates, the Tongass National Forest and
the Alaska Regional Soil, Water, and Air Program of the Forest Service
initiated the use of lichens as biomonitors of air pollution on the
Tongass National Forest (Geiser et al. 1994).  Seventy-three permanent
monitoring sites were established between 1989 and 1992 (Geiser et al
1994).  Lichen samples were collected and analyzed for baseline
pollutant concentrations (Geiser et al. 1994).  In this document, the
1989-1992 baseline monitoring period will henceforth be referred to as
baseline monitoring.

Aside from sites close to industries and major population centers, the
baseline monitoring data indicated that air quality on the Tongass was
relatively good.  A similar baseline monitoring pilot study was
initiated on the Chugach National Forest (Derr 1997). 

Lichens are considered one of the most pollution sensitive components of
the vegetation within a given ecosystem and can have predictive value in
assessing future effects on vascular plants (Nash & Gries 1991)  Lichens
are composite organisms formed by a fungus and a green alga and/or
blue-green bacterium.  They lack the mechanism utilized by higher plants
for water uptake (e.g. roots, conducting tissue) and regulation of gas
exchange (e.g. stomata, waxy cuticle).  The elemental content of lichens
is strongly affected by atmospheric influences: gases, particulate
matter and precipitation.  Studies have shown the usefulness of lichens
to monitor air pollutants by translating pollutant concentration numbers
to tangible effects on biological systems (Herzig et al 1989, Sigal &
Nash 1983, Farmer et. al. 1991).  Biomonitoring can provide a sensitive
overview of air quality and detect fairly small changes in air quality
geographically or over time (Boonpragob & Nash 1990, Richardson 1988,
Garty 1988, USFS 2006).  

Lichens are found in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems on the Tongass
National Forest.  An inventory listed over 500 lichens and allied fungi
from 112 genera within the Tongass National Forest (Geiser et al. 1998).


III.II Tongass Lichen Biomonitoring Program 2003-2005

In 2003, the Tongass initiated the recent phase of biomonitoring with
lichens. In this report, the 2003-2005 monitoring period will henceforth
be referred to as the second monitoring period.  

To date, 127 locations contain lichen tissue chemistry data from the
Tongass National Forest and nearby environs (Figure III-1, see
Conclusions Table XXXIII-1).  Of the 127 locations, 52 are within a
wilderness boundary.  Of the 52, 13 were revisited during the second
monitoring period (Table III-1).  Except for the Maurelle Islands, all
wilderness areas on the Tongass contain permanent air quality
biomonitoring plots.

In 2005, the Alaska Department of Environmental Conservation, Division
of Water, Commercial Passenger Vessel Environmental Compliance Program
Manager recommended that lichens be collected along an elevational
gradient on the trail to Mt. Roberts in Juneau as part of the Tongass
biomonitoring program.  The results would help determine the locations
of future instrumental air monitor installations for detecting pollution
in downtown Juneau.  Plots were also established at the Greens Creek
Mine on Admiralty Island (Figure III-1).  All lichen samples were
evaluated for their chemical composition with the Soil Analytical
Laboratory of the University of Minnesota.  The data were submitted to
Pacific Analytics for statistical analysis. 

In summary, the objectives of the second biomonitoring period were to: 

1) Establish monitoring sites in wilderness areas that were not part of
the baseline monitoring study of 1989-1994

 2) Perform elemental analysis of lichens from wilderness areas that
were part of the initial baseline monitoring study to detect possible
changes in concentrations of plant nutrients and metal-containing
contaminants over time 

3) Determine whether relationships exist between element concentrations
in lichens and several physiographic site characteristics

4) Establish Forest-wide provisional threshold levels for four lichen
species and 27 elements 

5) Identify areas on the Forest where element concentrations in lichens
are elevated above threshold

6) At locations where thresholds are exceeded, determine whether
enhancement is due to anthropogenic or natural sources 

7) Determine patterns of contaminant accumulation in lichens near
downtown Juneau on Mt Roberts and at Greens Creek mining facility on
Admiralty Island 

Table III-1. Summary of lichen biomonitoring plots in wilderness and
others on the Tongass National Forest visited between 2003 and 2005. 
Site names in bold were first established between 2003 and 2005.

Site Name	

Plot numbers	Plots from 1989-91 with tissue data that were revisited	

Date 

Coronation Island	513, 514	NA	July 14-15, 2005

Chuck River	491, 492, 493	NA	July 19- 20, 2003

Endicott River	506, 507, 508	NA	July 27-28, 2005

Greens Creek Mine	511, 512	NA	July 26, 2005

Karta River	159	159	

August 5, 2004

Kootznoowoo	189, 190	189, 190	June 7, 2005

Kuiu	498, 499	NA	August 23, 2004

Misty Fjords	86, 88	86, 88	May 19, 2005

Mt. Roberts-Juneau	1000, 1001, 1002,1003,1004	NA	July 29, 2005

Petersburg Creek/Duncan Salt Chuck	116, 57	116	August 26, 2004

Pleasant Island	145, 146	145, 146	July 28, 2004

Russell Fjords and Pikes Lake RNA	62, 69	 69 (Pikes Lake)

Figure III-1. Lichen biomonitoring plots on the Tongass National Forest
that contain elemental data.

IV. Methods

Plots, tissue collection and abundance estimates

For the second monitoring period, lichens were collected during the
summers of 2003, 2004, and 2005.  Protocol for permanent plot
establishment followed Geiser et. al (1994) and Geiser (2004).  General
plot locations in each new wilderness visited were determined by the
accessibility to an area and the cost of the transportation methods. 
Plots were established in mature and old-growth forest habitats at the
beach fringe, subalpine, and in Pinus contorta peatlands.  Except for
the presence of abundant material of the target lichen species for
chemical analysis, plot centers were arbitrarily selected without a
preconceived bias.  All plots, except for those along the Mt Robert
trail, have a narrow, one -meter aluminum or PCV plastic pole marking
plot center for relocation purposes.  Mt Roberts Trail is not on
National Forest lands.

Tissue collection and sample treatment followed Geiser (2004).  Voucher
lichens from each plot were first identified and given an abundance
rating by the lichenologist working in the field.  Later, the
identifications were verified and databased by contract lichenologists
and the Region 6 database technician in Corvallis Oregon.  

Abundance estimates for each macrolichen species per plot followed Derr
(1994) and Geiser et al (1994).  Abundance ratings used are similar to
FIA (Forest Inventory Analysis) (Geiser 2004).  Abundance ratings used
in Derr (1994) were developed before FIA had formal ratings established
for lichens.  Therefore to remain consistent, the second monitoring
period continued to use ratings from Derr (1994) and Geiser et al (1994)
baseline monitoring.  If necessary, abundance ratings from this study
can be transformed into FIA ratings.

All Tongass air quality plot information, elemental values, and lichen
community and abundance data are found in the   HYPERLINK
"http://www.nacse.org/lichenair"  www.nacse.org/lichenair  website.

Mt Roberts and Greens Creek Mine

Collection sites on Mt Roberts were established at five elevations that
were determined after the first tissues were collected at 1745 ft above
sea level.   Samples were collected at; 1745, 1241, 910, 600 and 175 ft
above sea level (plot numbers 1004, 1003, 1002, 1001, and 1000
respectively).  Elevations were determined using a Garmin Vista GPS
altimeter with less than 20 ft accuracy where possible.   

Plots at Greens Creek were intentionally located near suspected
pollution sources; about 250 ft upstream from the mine portal (Plot
511a), just across the bridge from the portal on the road (Plot 511b)
and near the ore tailings pile (Plot 512).  Samples collected at 511b
were not collected from an established plot, but from trees scattered
along the edge of the road leading into the mine that receive road dust
and other airborne elements related to the mine portal.  The other two
locations (511a, and 512) have permanent plot markers.

Samples for Elemental Analysis

The lichens collected for elemental analysis are: Alectoria sarmentosa
(Witch’s Hair lichen), Hypogymnia enteromorpha, H. appinata, H.
inactiva ( Tube lichens), Lobaria oregana  (Lettuce lichen), and
Platismatia glauca  (Varied Rag lichen).  Depending on the dominant
species of Hypogymnia in the plot area, a single species of Hypogymnia
was collected at a given plot for elemental analysis.  However, for the
data analysis the elemental data for all Hypogymnia species were
combined because little difference in pollution tolerance or
accumulation rates exists among the species in this genus.  The lichen
P. glauca was not targeted for elemental analysis during the baseline
monitoring period.  Therefore, the second monitoring period contains
baseline values of P. glauca for the Tongass. 

  SHAPE  \* MERGEFORMAT   

Figure IV-1 Alectoria sarmentosa (Witche’s Hair) at Hugh Smith Lake,
Misty Fiords. Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-2. Hypogymnia apinnata (Tube lichen) is one of several species
in the genus Hypogymnia collected for air quality biomonitoring.  Photo
by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-3 Lobaria oregana (Lung lichen) from Tebenkof wilderness.
Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Figure IV-4. Platismatia glauca (Rag lichen) from Endicott River
wilderness. Photo by Karen L. Dillman

Laboratory analysis

Lichens were prepared and sent to the University of Minnesota’s Soil
Analytical Laboratory at the end of each field season.  This laboratory
also analyzed the lichen tissue from the baseline monitoring.  Protocols
for sample preparation for the inductively coupled plasma atomic
emission spectrophotometry (ICP_AES) analysis are found in Geiser et al.
(1994).  Standards were the same as those from the baseline monitoring
period (Geiser et al 1994).  No analytical splits were run with the
samples.  Duplicates from the tissue sample were run at the same time as
the rest of the samples.  Duplicate means were used in the statistical
analysis for lichen species per element.  

Nitrogen and sulfur are anlysed in lichens separately (see below).  The
elements determined simultaneously in ICP are: calcium (Ca), magnesium
(Mg), sodium (Na), potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), aluminum
(Al), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), nickel (Ni),
lead (Pb), beryllium (Be), barium (Ba), boron (B), vanadium (V),
molybdenum (Mo), rubidium (Rb), lithium (Li), strontium (Sr), silicon
(Si) and tititanium (Ti).  The values for beryllium, molybdenum, and
rubidium were below the detection limits of the ICP machine and will not
be described in detail in this report.  Baseline monitoring did not
report data for beryllium, barium, vanadium, lithium, strontium,
silicon, and titanium.  Therefore, the second monitoring period also
contains baseline data for these seven elements.  

All elements, except nitrogen (N) and sulfur (S) are reported in ppm
(parts per million).  For example, 2,500 mg of Calcium (Ca) per
1,000,000 mg of plant material is expressed on a dry weight basis of
plant material (ppm).  Nitrogen and sulfur are presented in percent (%)
of dry weight.  Nitrogen and sulfur are traditionally expressed in
percent rather than ppm due to the generally higher levels of N and S
found in plant material as compared to other elements.  Percent can
easily be converted to ppm by moving the decimal of the value over four
places to the right.  For example, if percent N is 1.25 then this is
equivalent to 12,500 ppm.

During the second monitoring period, 241 individual samples were
analyzed for all elements, with 76 percent of the samples analyzed for
nitrogen and 83 percent of the samples analyzed for sulfur (Table IV.
1).

Table IV-1 Summary for lichen samples analyzed for all elements,
nitrogen, and sulfur for 2003-2005.

Year	All elements	Nitrogen	Sulfur

2003	11	11	0

2004	121	101	118

2005	82	71	82

Totals	241	183	200



Nitrogen and Sulfur

A small portion of each ground sample was analyzed for total sulfur and
total nitrogen following the procedures described in Geiser et al.
(1994).  For total N, a small portion of each ground sample (except
samples of Lobaria oregana), were analyzed for total N.  Lobaria oregana
is a nitrogen-fixing lichen containing cyanobacteria that fix
atmospheric N into a usable form for plants.  Therefore, it is not a
good indicator of elevated levels of N in lichens.

Baseline monitoring contained N values only for a small subset of
Alectoria sarmentosa collected at the end of the monitoring period
(Geiser et. al 1994; Derr 1994).  The second monitoring period analyzed
all Alectoria sarmentosa for N.  The second monitoring period also
contains baseline N values for Platismatia glauca and the combined
Hypogymnia species. 

Paired t-tests

Thirteen of the baseline monitoring plots were revisited during the
second monitoring period (Table IV-2).  Paired t-tests were used to
determine if element content in lichens changed in pre-2000 and
post-2000 samples.  Paired t-tests are used where the entities measured
in each sample are pairwise dependent. The goal is to test whether the
mean difference between paired values is significantly different from
zero (Ramsey and Schafer 1997).

Table IV-1. Revisited sites from which data were used for paired
t-tests. Sites in bold are those where elemental analysis was repeated
for nitrogen in Alectoria sarmentosa .

Plot Number	Location	Plot Number	Location

TNF 30	Stikine-LeConte	TNF 145, 146 	Pleasant Island

TNF 31	Stikine-LeConte	TNF 159	Karta River

TNF033	Tebenkof	TNF 189, 190	Kootznoowoo

TNF069	Pikes Lake	TNF 86, 88	Misty Fiords

TNF101	Yakobi



TNF116	Petersburg Ck





Trends in Relation to Physiographic Features

Data were analyzed by regression to detect possible trends in lichen
accumulation of elements in relation to year, latitude, longitude,
precipitation, and elevation. Average precipitation was determined by
using data for the nearest station at   HYPERLINK
"http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/stationlocator" 
www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/climate/stationlocator 

Provisional Thresholds

Provisional element analysis thresholds are levels of elements in
certain lichen species that above which can be considered elevated.  For
this study, threshold is based on lichen species and background levels
of air pollutants found in southeast Alaska.  Thresholds were estimated
for each element and lichen species by using the non-parametric 97.5%
quartile in the data recorded from sites that are considered relatively
free of human disturbance and pollution effects.  Thresholds were
calculated from 88 of the 127 plots that contain elemental tissue data
collected between 1989 and 2005.  Fifty-one of the 52 wilderness plots
were considered pristine, even though some mining has occurred in the
past in some wilderness areas.  Fishing vessels also anchor off shore of
many wilderness areas.  Russell Fiords plot 62, which is within a mile
of an existing road was excluded as a pristine area and is shown in the
graphs as a non-wilderness plot.  Some of the non-wilderness plots
considered pristine are from Pikes Lake Research Natural Area (RNA), Old
Toms Creek RNA, Dog Island, Kell Bay, Cape Fanshaw RNA, and Crystal
Mountain on Mitkof Island.  Thresholds are displayed as a solid line for
each element and lichen species in the graphed figures for elemental
content by year.  A summary of the thresholds by element is found in
Chapter XXXII. 

To provide a broader picture of the elemental content of lichens from
the Tongass, threshold levels are cursorily compared to published
background levels from the Pacific Northwest.  The term “background
level” refers to the normal elemental content in a species in
environments without enrichment of elements from natural or
anthropogenic sources (USDA 1999).  The term “baseline level” refers
to the elemental content in collections from a given area that is
recorded as historical points of reference (USDA 1999).  Tongass
baseline levels for three of the four lichen species analyzed in this
report are found in Geiser et al. (1994).  Tongass threshold levels are
generally higher than background and baseline levels due to the natural
enhancement of some elements from the hypermaritime environment and
active geologic processes of the region.

Software used for all statistical analyses was S-Plus 2000 (MathSoft
1988-1999). 

V. Summary of results for percent Sulfur (% S) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is a by-product of coal or fuel-oil combustion, ore
reduction, paper manufacturing or other industrial processes, and
vehicle exhaust.  It is considered to be the primary factor causing
lichen mortality in most urban and industrial areas, with fruticose or
hair- like lichens being more susceptible to SO2 than many foliose or
crustose lichens (Seaward 1974).  The first indications of SO2 damage in
lichens are the inhibition of nitrogen fixation in lichens that contain
cyanobacteria, increased electrolyte leakage, and decreased
photosynthesis and respiration followed by discoloration and death of
the algae (Fields 1988). 

The ICP analysis used in biomonitoring cannot distinguish between
different forms of sulfur in a lichen sample.  The two forms that are
generally considered are inorganic sulfur (sulfates) and organic sulfur
(sulfur in combination with organic molecules of the plant).  The ICP
method converts both forms into SO2 gas and then measures the SO2 by
infra-red detection.  This is the total sulfur reported (% S).  Natural
sources of sulfur can come from seawater and can be deposited on
vegetation from ocean spray.  Industrial pollution is also caused by
sulfates (SO2 gas from smokestakes that has combined with water in the
atmosphere to form sulfates). Although many lichens are very sensitive
to sulfur pollution, the lichens used in biomonitoring studies are
relatively tolerant to elevated sulfur levels.  Deposition must be high
to have potentially toxic effects to sulfur tolerant lichens.

The lichens in wilderness areas on the Tongass are not expected to be
high in sulfur due to considerable distances from anthropogenic sources
in the region.  Threshold values for % S in lichens are the following:
Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar) (.06 %), Hypogymnia species (.09%),
Lobaria oregana (Lobore)(.13%) and Platismatia glauca (Plagla) (.08%).  

Elemental plot means for % S in wilderness for each lichen species per
year are at or below the % S threshold levels reported above (Figure
V-1).  Exceptions are plots 33 and 510 for Alesar (Figure V-4 for
Tebenkof and Warren Island respectively) and plots, 500 and 516 for
Lobore (Figure V-8 for Tebenkof and South POW respectively), which
report plot means slightly above the % S threshold.  Plot mean for % S
in Plagla and Hypogymnia in some non-wilderness plots (Greens Creek mine
and Mt Roberts) also report above threshold (see: Figure V-2 for plot
means in non-wilderness per year ((blue diamonds and pink squares for
2005)), Figure V-4 for Alesar (plots 1000, 512), Figure V- 6 for
Hypogymnia (plots 512, 511b), and Figure V-10 for Plagla (plots 511a,
511b, 512). 

 SUMMARY OF PERCENT SULFUR DATA ANALYSIS

Figure V-1. Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in All Species per year. 

Figure V-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table V-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Alectoria
sarmentosa per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0344	0.0019	0.0292	0.0395

1989	Wilderness	0.0402	0.0030	0.0326	0.0478

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.0352	0.0033	0.0283	0.0420

1990	Wilderness	0.0264	0.0030	0.0190	0.0338

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.0259	0.0011	0.0236	0.0281

1991	Wilderness	0.0287	0.0027	0.0213	0.0361

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.0236	0.0011	0.0210	0.0262

2004	Wilderness	0.0386	0.0039	0.0304	0.0467

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.0592	0.0113	0.0302	0.0883

2005	Wilderness	0.0418	0.0039	0.0329	0.0506



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.6884, df = 8, p-value = 0.1298

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % S content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post-2000(p-value = 0.1298).  This analysis
was for ten plots that had repeated values for % sulfur in Alectoria
sarmentosa: Karta River (#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake
RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116),
Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty
Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures V-3,
V-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results). 

Figure V-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur


in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure V-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table V-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Hypogymnia
species per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0620	0.0060	0.0142	0.1382

1989	Wilderness	0.0599	0.0014	0.0560	0.0637

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.0821	0.0078	0.0656	0.0986

1990	Wilderness	0.0511	0.0030	0.0438	0.0585

2004	Wilderness	0.0603	0.0012	0.0572	0.0634

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.2466	0.1004	0.1854	0.6786

2005	Wilderness	0.0746	0.0032	0.0673	0.0820



No t-tests were preformed for Hypogymnia due to any repeated samples. 

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see V-5 and V-6)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results). 

Figure V-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Figure V-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

 

Lobaria oregana

Table V-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Lobaria oregana
per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.0966	0.0065	0.0760	0.1172

1989	Wilderness	0.1055	0.0073	0.0851	0.1259

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.1203	0.0038	0.1122	0.1285

1990	Wilderness	0.1016	0.0036	0.0922	0.1109

2004	Wilderness	0.0980	0.0067	0.0824	0.1136

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.1242	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.1147	0.0067	0.0932	0.1361



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.1448, df = 4, p-value = 0.8884

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % S content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8884).  This
analysis was for five plots that had repeated values for % S in Lobaria
oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#
86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see Figures V-7
and V-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results). 

Figure V-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur


in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure V-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Platismatia glauca

Table V-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and 95%
Confidence Intervals for the Percent Sulfur content of Platismatia
glauca per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.053483	0.002511	0.047802	0.059164

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.166472	0.046996	0.06016	0.272784

2005	Wilderness	0.066829	0.004328	0.056595	0.077063



No t-test was done due to lack of repeat samples.  The values for % S
are baseline for Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in the % S content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( see Figures
V-9 and V-10 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure V-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent Sulfur

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure V-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Sulfur 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: Percent Sulfur (% S) and all lichen species

 General lichen enhancement levels for S due to urban or industrial
sources are between .20 and 1.3 % S (USDA 1999).  All thresholds of S
for all lichen species are below .20 ppm.  However, mean S in some
lichens are above threshold and therefore within the range of the
enhanced levels.  Some of the enhanced lichens are in urban areas, but
others are in wilderness.  Since the ICP analysis does not differentiate
between the sulfur types, it is difficult to determine if the wilderness
lichens are elevated in sulfur due to their proximity to the ocean and
in the variation in precipitation that washes pollutants out over time. 
It is most likely that the lichens with enhanced % S in urban and
industrial areas are due to anthropogenic sources, as the lichens are
not growing in exposed maritime beach locations in these urban or
industrial areas.  The difficulty lies in determining if the enhanced
values in some of the wilderness lichens are due to the close proximity
to the marine environment or to popular marine vessel anchorages and/or
passageways in some.  Trends in sulfur content can only be detected
through repeated monitoring efforts to elucidate patterns of
accumulation that may exist in these areas of elevated sulfur. 
Therefore, more sampling at regular intervals (every five years) is
needed to determine the extent of the % S accumulation in the areas with
values above threshold.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

The estimated background for S in Alesar in the Pacific Northwest is 350
ppm (or .035 % S) (USDA 1999).  Threshold for % S from Alesar in
Southeast Alaska (.060 %) is elevated above the background .035 % due to
the hypermaritime environment in this region.  Yet, Alesar accumulates
less and has a lower % S threshold compared to other lichens (Fig V-1
and V-2).  Plot means of % S are above threshold in Alesar from plots
240, 33, 1000, 512, and 510 (Figure V-4).  Plot 240, established in
1990, was within 3 km of the Sitka pulp mill which emitted sulfur
dioxide in the paper bleaching process.  This plot was not revisited
during the second monitoring phase.  The elevated % S in plots 33 and
510 could be due to close proximity to the open ocean and influence from
extreme salt spray conditions in Tebenkof Bay and Warren Island.  The
waters adjacent to the plots in these wilderness areas are also used as
anchorages for marine vessels.  The other lichens analyzed from plot 33;
the % S in Lobaria oregana and Platismatia glauca were just below
threshold (see discussion below and Figures V-8 and V-10 respectively). 
There are no known industrial point sources near either wilderness. 
Plot 1000 is 175 ft. in elevation above sea level and is in the vicinity
of the cruise ship docking area in downtown Juneau.  Mean % S in plot
512 is probably enhanced due to the close proximity to the tailings pile
and associated road machinery and power source at the Greens Creek mine
in Admiralty Island.

Hypogymnia 

Lichens analyzed in the genus Hypogymnia include H. enteromorpha, H.
duplicata, H inactiva, and H. appinata.  These lichens accumulate at
similar rates and the results are combined for calculating the % S
threshold for the genus Hypogymnia (.09%).  The estimated background for
% S in Hypogymnia enteromorpha is .075% in the Pacific Northwest (USDA
1999).  The species H. enteromorpha was one of the four species with
data that was combined in this study as little variation exists in
elemental uptake in the genus Hypogymnia (USDA 1999).  Elevated levels
of % S in plots 511b (on road at mine portal) and 512 (area close to
tailings pile) from Greens Creek are probably due to close proximity to
industrial activities.  Plot mean for % S in the wilderness plots 507
and 508 from Endicott River are just at threshold.  It is difficult to
determine if these levels are natural background due to oceanic
influence or resulting from marine traffic along Lynn Canal or in
Glacier Bay.  Plots along the Sitka road system and near the pulp mill
(plots 243, 242, 239 and 244) are above threshold from the baseline
monitoring period in the 1990’s.  These areas should be revisited to
determine if the lichens are now lower in S since the mill has since
closed.  

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Most plots containing Lobore report at or below threshold for % S (see
Figures V-7 and V-8 above).  The general background level for % S in
Lobore is .12% in the P acific Northwest (USDA 1999).  As shown with the
other lichens in this study, threshold for Lobore are slightly higher
(.13%) than the background in the Pacific Northwest.  The wilderness
plots from South POW and Tebenkof that are slightly above the threshold
for mean % S in Lobore are located in the beach fringe in exposed beach
locations.  The few plot means that report above threshold are from
Sitka when the pulp mill was operating in 1990 (Figure V-8).  Although
considered a fair accumulator, Lobore was not collected at each plot. 
It is not analyzed for nitrogen due to this species nitrogen fixing
physiology. 

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Platismatia glauca (Plagla) was not used during baseline biomonitoring. 
Therefore, this report contains baseline for % S and Plagla (Table V.5).
 Background for % S in the Pacific Northwest for Plagla is .06% (USDA
1999), which is slightly lower than the threshold .08% on the Tongass. 
The wilderness plot from Egg Harbor on Coronation Island reported mean %
S at the.08% threshold.  Sulfur enhancement in the lichens could be due
to the marine influence in this exposed location or due to it being an
anchorage for fishing vessels.  There was also mining at Egg Harbor
during the turn of the 20th century.  The non-wilderness plots that
report above threshold are from Greens Creek mine, both near the portal
(511a and 511b) and the tailings pile (512) (Figure V-10).  It is
noteworthy to mention that the tissue collected at the mine portal
(511b) appears higher in mean sulfur than at the plot 250 feet away from
the road (511a).  The other non-wilderness plots 1000, 1001 and 1002 are
elevated above threshold from the 175, 600, and 910 ft elevations
respectively on Mt Roberts (Figure V-10). Elevated S is most likely due
to industrial sources in this area of Juneau.

Plagla was also collected in Tebenkof and Warren Island, but both do not
report elevated levels of % S as are reported in Alesar for these
wildernesses (Figure V-4).  Platismatia glauca is faster growing lichen
and perhaps the tissue collected of this species was younger than the
Alesar collected at the same sites. VI. Summary of results for %
Nitrogen (N) from all species on the Tongass National Forest

Nitrogen (NO2) is a critical nutrient for many metabolic processes in
plants and is often found in limited quantities in the environment. 
Nitrogen becomes a pollutant when more reactive N is released into the
environment than can be assimilated without degradating air, land and
water resources.   Some of the largest sources of reactive N are
airborne emissions (from the combustion of fossil fuels) and the
production and use of nitrogen fertilizers.  Besides being emitted in
differing quantities from some areas within Alaska, nitrogen pollutants
can also be transported across the Pacific Ocean from Asia.  Long-term
deposition of N compounds in elevated levels may affect resistance to
insects and pathogens, soil microbiological processes, winter injury in
conifers, and foliar leaching.  Potential effects of long term N
deposition are also changes in ecosystem structure and diversity, such
as the replacement of some plants in nitrogen-poor systems with plants
having higher N tolerances (Miller et. al. 1978).

Total N represents contributions from ammoniacal and oxidized forms of N
and wet and dry deposition.  Because this region has high precipitation,
tissue analysis cannot differentiate wet from dry deposition, and is
difficult to distinguish different forms of N (e.g. nitrate vs.
ammoniacal forms of N).  The lichens in wilderness areas on the Tongass
are not generally expected to be high in N due to distances from point
source pollutions in the region.  Threshold (in percent) for % N in
lichens from pristine areas are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(.56%), Hypogymnia species (.88%), and Platismatia glauca (.80%).  Plot
means per year in wilderness and non-wilderness areas for each lichen
species are all below the % N threshold (Figures VI-1 and VI-2.). 
However, some individual plot means are above threshold (Figures VI-4,
VI-6, and VI-8).  Additionally, plot means in % N in lichens collected
from 1989 to 2005 appear to show an increase over time.  (Figures V-1,
V-2, V-4, V-6 and V-10) 

VI. SUMMARY OF PERCENT NITROGEN DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VI-1. Wilderness plot means of Percent Nitrogen 

in All Species per year. 

Figure VI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent Nitrogen 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Alectoria
sarmentosa per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.24	0.0082	0.2236	0.2578

1991	Wilderness	0.26	0.0184	0.2089	0.3111

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.24	0.0082	0.2236	0.2578

2003	Wilderness	0.25	0.0724	-0.6719	1.1684

2004	Wilderness	0.32	0.0084	0.3031	0.3378

2005	Wilderness	0.46	0.0503	0.3453	0.5730

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.59	0.1142	0.2996	0.8865



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.9604, df = 4, p-value = 0.3912

There is no evidence of a difference in mean % N content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3912). 
Wilderness areas and plots close to wilderness that were compared for
differences in % N from Alesar were: Pikes Lake RNA (69), Pleasant
Island,(145, 146)  Karta River (159) and Kootznoowoo (189, 190). 

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-3, VI-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure VI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table VI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Hypogymnia
species per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.29	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.50	0.0144	0.4670	0.5409

2005	Wilderness	0.65	0.0495	0.5393	0.7676

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.71	0.0465	0.5067	0.9069



No t-test was done for Hypogymnia due to any repeated samples.

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Hypogymnia species
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-5, VI-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results). 

Figure VI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure VI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Hypogymnia species per year.

Platismatia glauca

Table VI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Percent Nitrogen content of Platismatia
glauca per year.

Percent Nitrogen	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.35	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.49	0.0192	0.4435	0.5321

2005	Wilderness	0.64	0.0379	0.5529	0.7321

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.73	0.0520	0.6118	0.8472



No t-test was done for Platismatia glauca due to lack of repeat samples.
 The values for N are baseline for Platismatia glauca on the Tongass.

Relationships are not strong in the % N content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VI-5, VI-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure VI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Percent
Nitrogen 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: Percent Nitrogen (% N) and all lichens species 

In Alectoria sarmentosa, the mean % N appears to increase over time from
the early 1990’s to 2005(Figure VI-2).  Nitrogen levels in lichens
collected from the 2003 to 2005 also show an apparent increase in mean
nitrogen over time.  However, the sample size is not large enough to
determine if levels are statistically different across years.  More
regular sampling is needed to get trend information for N deposition. 
Steady rise in N deposition on the Tongass could be due to transpacific
sources, as most of the plots in this recent study are from wilderness
areas that are generally far from pollution point sources.  Background
values for % N from the Pacific Northwest are not available.  

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Alesar accumulates less and therefore has a lower % N threshold (.56%)
compared to other lichens (Fig VI-1).  Plot means of % N are above
threshold in Alesar from plots 1000, 510, 512, and 513 (Figure VI-4). 
Plot 1000 is 175 ft. above the cruise ship docking area in downtown
Juneau.  The % N in Alesar could be elevated due to proximity to this
industry and other urban sources.  Plot 510 from Warren Island
wilderness has no known industrial sources.  However, the nearby Warren
Cove is an anchorage for marine fishing vessels in transit.  Plot 512 is
from Greens Creek near the tailings pile and associated pollution from
the mine.  Plot 513 from Egg Harbor on Coronation is also an anchoring
location, and elevated % N could be due to this influence. 

Hypogymnia

Plot means for % N were not elevated above threshold in the samples of
Hypogymnia collected (Figures VI-5 and VI-6).  The Endicott River plot
506 is just at threshold for % N.  It is mentioned here because Plagla
from plot 506 is also right at threshold. It is unclear weather this is
natural background for this area or due to marine vessel traffic on Lynn
Canal and Glacier Bay.  Hypogymnia was not collected for N analysis in
the first monitoring period.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

The plot mean for % N in Plagla is elevated above threshold in plot
1000, which is 175 ft above the cruise ship docking area in Juneau
(Figure VI-8).  Plot means of % N in Plagla for plot 1004 (Mt Roberts at
1700 ft) and 506 (Endicott River wilderness) were at threshold.  All
other plot means were below the % N threshold for Plagla (Figure VI-8). 
Again, plot means by year show an increase in nitrogen from 2003, 2004
and 2005 in Plagla as in Hypogymnia and Alectoria.  More sampling is
needed in the Juneau area around the downtown cruise ship docking area
to determine the extent of the nitrogen deposition from cruise ship
emissions and other industrial sources in the downtown area.



VII. Summary of results for Aluminum (Al) from all lichen species on the
Tongass National Forest

Aluminum (Al) is mineralogically abundant on earth.  Elevated levels in
lichens are usually associated with road dust.  

Provisional thresholds for Al on the Tongass are the following in ppm:
Alectoria sarmentosa (56.78 ppm), Hypogymnia (1126.44 ppm), Lobaria
oregana (580.03 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (1063.57ppm). 

Plot means for Al are above threshold in Alesar from Greens Creek
tailings pile area (plot 512), area 175 ft above Juneau on Mt Roberts
(plot 1000) the Sitka, Kuiu and Hoonah road systems (plots 108, 240,
219, and 143), Tebenkof Bay Wilderness (plot 33), and Endicott River
Wilderness (plot 508) (Figure VII-4).  Plots means for Al are above
threshold in Hypogymnia for the Greens Creek mine tailing pile area
(plot 512), Russell Fiords (plot 62), near the Shrine of St Therese off
the Juneau road system (plot 43), and Mitkof Island near Petersburg
(plot 44) (Figure VII-6).  The Russell Fiord plot 62 is just inside the
wilderness boundary and is not considered a pristine wilderness plot in
this study due to the proximity to the Dangerous River Bridge, the
airstrip, and the unpaved road system of Yakutat (shown as an open
triangle indicating non-wilderness).  Plot means for Al in Lobore are
above threshold in Russell Fiords (plot 62) (Figure VII-8).  Plot means
for Al in Plagla are above threshold in three plots; Greens Creek
tailing pile (512), Pikes Lake plot within 5 miles of the Yakutat road
(69) and the Russell Fiord plot near the Dangerous River bridge (Figures
VII-9 and VII-10).VII. SUMMARY OF Al PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VII-1. Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure VII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	20.44	3.8508	9.7485	31.13

1989	Wilderness	31.61	2.3594	25.5455	37.6768

1990	Non-Wilderness	39.00	3.8960	30.9901	47.0066

1990	Wilderness	30.64	4.2295	20.2942	40.9929

1991	Non-Wilderness	33.60	3.4532	26.3451	40.8549

1991	Wilderness	32.50	7.1454	12.6625	52.3401

1992	Non-Wilderness	52.0302	13.7371	19.5470	84.5133

2003	Wilderness	28.17	11.1950	0	170.4120

2004	Wilderness	27.10	2.2231	22.5006	31.6982

2005	Non-Wilderness	50.47	13.9491	14.6127	86.3273



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.2644, df = 8, p-value = 0.7981

There is no evidence of a difference in mean Al content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.7981).  This
analysis was for six wildernesses or near wilderness plots that had
repeated values for Al in Alectoria sarmentosa: Karta River (# 159),
Pleasant Island (# 145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (#189,
190), Petersburg Creek (# 116), and Tebenkof (#33).

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-3, VII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table VII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	229.50	205.5000	0	2840.6250

1989	Wilderness	411.83	142.6811	15.6871	807.9796

1990	Non-Wilderness	502.16	78.3077	337.6395	666.6763

1990	Wilderness	185.71	11.4701	157.6480	213.7806

2003	Wilderness	246.07	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	572.74	104.7184	303.5572	841.9314

2005	Non-Wilderness	1,122.16	294.7619	0	2390.4146

2005	Wilderness	443.83	110.8418	188.2312	699.4344



No t-tests were preformed for Hypogymnia due to the lack of repeat
samples. 

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Hypogymnia species
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-5, VII-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure VII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Lobaria oregana

Table VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	35.08	12.3516	0	74.3917

1989	Wilderness	57.15	15.2926	14.6874	99.6057

1990	Non-Wilderness	55.69	11.2639	31.1439	80.2279

1990	Wilderness	37.93	17.2154	0	82.1850

2004	Wilderness	242.58	72.9612	64.0497	421.1091

2005	Non-Wilderness	689.71	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	98.79	44.7471	0	241.1986



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.9293, df = 4, p-value = 0.1259

There is no evidence of a difference in mean Al content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1259).  This
analysis was for three wildernesses areas that had repeated values for
Al in Lobaria oregana: Stikine-LeConte (# 30, 31), Tebenkof (#33), and
Misty Fiords (#86, 88).  

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures VII-7,
VII-8 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure VII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Lobaria oregana per year.

Figure VII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Platismatia glauca

Table VII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Al ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Al ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	213.86	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	483.88	88.8447	282.8962	684.8574

2005	Non-Wilderness	781.3696	97.6291	560.5172	1002.2219



No t-test was done for Platismatia glauca due to the lack of repeat
samples.  Values are baseline for Al and Plagla.

Relationships are not strong in the Al content in Platismatia glauca
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
VII-9, VII-10 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure VII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Al ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Figure VII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Al ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: Aluminum (Al) and all lichen species

The provisional threshold for Al in lichens on the Tongass is slightly
higher than the estimated background and enhanced cutoff values from the
Pacific Northwest (USDA 1999).  This could be due to the geology and the
large amount of exposed rock from retreating glaciers and other
geomorphic features that occur in southeast Alaska.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

The background value for Al in the Pacific Northwest is 50 ppm, which is
almost equal to the threshold of 56.78 ppm (USDA 1999).  The proximity
to unpaved roads may explain the elevated values of Al in lichens from
the Greens Creek plot near the tailings pile, and other plots near road
systems (plot 219 from Kuiu,108 and 240 from Sitka, 221 from Douglas,
and 143 from Whitestone area near Hoonah) (Figure VII-4).  Plot 33 from
Tebenkof is also slightly above threshold.  It is unclear why Al would
be elevated in this maritime location.  Plot 508 from Endicott River
could be elevated due to the close proximity to Glacier Bay and glacial
dust. 

Hypogymnia

The general background values for Al in Hypogymnia are between 500 and
700 ppm, which is lower than the Tongass threshold of 1126 ppm (USDA
1999).  The plot means for Al in Hypogymnia are elevated above threshold
from plot 512 (Greens Creek Tailings pile), plot 62 (Russell Fiord near
Harlequin Lake), and plots 243 and 244 (Sitka road system) (Figure
VII-6).  Elevated levels can be attributed to the close proximity to
unpaved roads.  The Harlequin Lake plot is also within a half mile of an
unpaved airstrip which may induce more windblown dust to the area. 
Natural erosion and windblown soils from the Yukon during high pressure
conditions can bring massive sand clouds over the region as well (James
per comm. 2007).  Mean Al from plot 508 in the Endicott River wilderness
is just below the threshold.  All other plot means are at or below the
Al threshold for Hypogymnia (Figure VII-5 and VII-6).

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

The background value for Al in Lobore is 200 ppm, which is lower than
the Tongass threshold of 580 ppm (USDA 1999).  The plot means for Al in
Lobore are elevated above threshold from plot 62 (Russell Fiords)
(Figure VII-8).  The elevated level is possibly due to the reasons
stated above under Hypogymnia. 

Platismatia glauca

Background for Al for the Pacific Northwest in Plagla is 500 ppm and the
threshold value for the Tongass is 1063 ppm (USDA 1999).  The plot means
for Al in Plagla are elevated above threshold from plot 69 (Pike Lake)
and plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile area) (Figure VII-10).  Again,
the elevated levels in Plagla are probably due to the close proximity to
unpaved roads.  Plot 69 near Pike Lake may also be enhanced by windblown
soils from the Yukon as described above under Hypogymnia for the
Harlequin Lake plot as the Pike Lakes area is within a few miles of
Harlequin Lake.  Plot 508 from Endicott has levels of Al just below
threshold.  This plot shows elevated levels of Al in Alesar, Hypo and
Plagla.  It is unclear why this area is elevated, but it could be due to
windblown dusts from Glacier Bay and the Chilkat Peninsula.

VIII. Summary of results for Boron (B) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Boron is a naturally occurring element.  Borates are boron combined with
oxygen and other elements in compounds.  Boron (B) enters the
environment mainly from weathering of boron-containing rocks, from
seawater in the form of boric acid vapor, and from volcanic and other
geothermal activities.  Although to a lesser extent, boron is also
released from human activities.  These include the use of
borate-containing fertilizers and herbicides, and the burning of
plant-based products such as wood, coal, or oil (IPCS 1998).  Boron also
enters into the environment from the use of borates and perborates in
the home and industry, through leaching from treated wood or paper and
from sewage and sewage sludge disposal.  Plants and lichens can
accumulate boron, but it does not accumulate to a greater extent along
the food chain when animals consume plants.  Boron is an essential
nutrient for plants, but in some plants there is only a narrow margin
between deficiency and toxicity. 

Provisional thresholds for B on the Tongass are the following: Alectoria
sarmentosa (9.33 ppm), Hypogymnia (9.47 ppm), Lobaria oregana (4.06
ppm), and Platismatia glauca (6.05 ppm).

Mean boron is elevated above threshold from various locations and in all
lichen species.  The Stikine-LeConte plot 195 is slightly elevated in
Plagla from the recent monitoring period (Figure VIII-10).  Samples from
the Sitka road system when the pulp mill was operating are above
thresholds (in Alesar plot 108, 208, 209, and 246 in Figure VIII-4; in
Hypo plots 243 245, 246, 108 and 113 in Figure VIII-6; in Lobore plot
246, Figure VIII-8). 

VIII. SUMMARY OF B PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure VIII-1. Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure VIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table VIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.53	0.0586	0.3626	0.6878

1989	Wilderness	1.54	0.5888	0.0263	3.0535

1990	Non-Wilderness	2.78	0.7734	1.1994	4.3790

1990	Wilderness	0.66	0.1238	0.3587	0.9646

1991	Non-Wilderness	1.77	0.1778	1.3973	2.1443

1991	Wilderness	3.37	1.5110	0	7.5697

1992	Non-Wilderness	7.50	1.9605	2.8674	12.1389

2003	Wilderness	0.50	0.0362	0.0366	0.9557

2004	Wilderness	1.22	0.1280	0.8574	1.3870

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.92	0.0905	0.6893	1.1545

2005	Wilderness	0.99	0.1800	0.5786	1.3929



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 1.2005, df = 8, p-value = 0.2643

There is no evidence of a difference in mean B content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2643).  This
analysis was for ten plots with repeated values for B in Alesar from:
Karta River (# 159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69),
Kootznoowoo (#189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), and Tebenkof (#33).

Figure VIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table VIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Hypogymnia species per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.97	1.56	0	21.7917

1989	Wilderness	5.01	1.1197	1.9060	8.1236

1990	Non-Wilderness	6.87	0.8718	5.0392	8.7024

1990	Wilderness	2.18	0.4829	0.9978	3.3612

2003	Wilderness	2.86	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	3.04	0.3202	2.2151	3.8615

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.08	0.5080	0	3.2650

2005	Wilderness	2.87	0.4287	1.8815	3.8586



T-tests were not performed on Hypogymnia data due to lack of repeat
samples.

Relationships are not strong in B content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-5,
VIII-6 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure VIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure VIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Lobaria oregana

Table VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.27	0.0419	1.1408	1.4075

1989	Wilderness	1.63	0.2415	0.9576	2.2988

1990	Non-Wilderness	3.00	0.7282	1.4169	4.5900

1990	Wilderness	0.84	0.1442	0.4670	1.2083

2004	Wilderness	1.84	0.4057	0.8450	2.8304

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.93	na	na	na

2005	Wilderness	1.59	0.3193	0.5711	2.6036



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.4197, df = 4, p-value = 0.2287

There is no evidence of a difference in B content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2287). This analysis
was for three wildernesses areas that had repeated values for B in
Lobaria oregana: Tebenkof (#33), Misty Fiords (# 86, 88), and
Stikine-LeConte (# 30, 31).

Relationships are not strong in B content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-7, VIII-8 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure VIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure VIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table VIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the B ppm content of Platismatia glauca per
year.

B ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	3.33	na	na	na

2004	Wilderness	2.75	0.5855	1.4256	4.0747

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.73	0.3344	0.9751	2.4879

2005	Wilderness	2.77	0.6650	1.1995	4.3447



No t-tests were performed on the data for Platismatia glauca due to lack
of repeat samples.  Values are baseline for B in Platismatia glauca. 

Relationships are not strong in B content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures VIII-9, VIII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure VIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of B ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure VIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of B ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Boron (B) and all lichen species

Background levels of boron in the Pacific Northwest are lower than the
threshold levels on the Tongass (between 2.0 and 4.0 ppm and 4.0 to 9.47
ppm respectively).  Higher threshold values may be due to the
hypermaritime environment, where boron is released from the ocean in the
form of boric acid vapor across the region.  It may also be due to the
region’s relatively close proximity to recent volcanic activity.

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Tongass threshold level for boron in Alesar is higher than the
background value for boron in the Pacific Northwest (9.33 ppm and
approximately 2.0 ppm respectively) (USDA 1999).  None of the plot means
for B in Alesar are above threshold in the recent monitoring period, but
are elevated from the past monitoring period in plots 108 and 246
(Figure VIII-2) on the Sitka road system near the pulp mill.  Pike Lakes
RNA has two plots elevated (208 and 209) and one that is on the
threshold line (plot 212) (Figure VIII-2).  This may be due to the
proximity to the glaciated areas around Yakutat.  One plot from Pleasant
Island wilderness is also at threshold for B from the first monitoring
period (Plot 146) (Figure VIII-4).  This island is located near the
entrance to Glacier Bay in Icy Strait.  Re-sampling of this plot in 2004
did not detect a statistically significant change in B for Alesar (Table
VIII-2).  Pleasant Island consists of volcanic rock.

Hypogymnia 

Background value for B in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest is lower
than on the Tongass (approximately 2.0 to 3.0 ppm and 9.47 ppm
respectively) (USDA 1999).  All plot means of B are below threshold for
the genus Hypogymnia, except for plots 243, 245 and 246 on the Sitka
road system, and plot 113 from Berners Bay near Cove Point (Figure
VIII-5).  Elevated levels may be due to the close proximity to Lynn
Canal and wind blown glacial dust.  

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Background value for B for Lobore in the Pacific Northwest is lower than
on the Tongass (approximately 2.0 ppm and 4.06 ppm respectively).  Plot
means for B in Lobore are below threshold except for plot 246 on the
Sitka road system, plot 67 from the Yakutat road system and 113 from
Berners Bay (Figure VIII-8).  All elevated lichens are from plots from
the baseline monitoring period and were not revisited.  These areas may
be elevated due to their proximity to industry (Sitka) and to wind blown
glacial dusts.

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Background for B in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is 4.0 ppm (USDA
1999) and threshold is 6.0 ppm from the Tongass.  Plot means for B in
Plagla are above the threshold in Stikine-LeConte wilderness on Gut
Island (Figure VIII-10).  Elevated B could be due to natural sources of
boron in saltwater and windblown soils (i.e. from loess on the Stikine
Delta).  

IX. Summary of results for Barium (Ba) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Barium is an alkaline-earth metal found only in combination with other
elements in nature (mainly combined with peroxide, chloride, sulfate,
carbonate, nitrate and chlorate).  Two forms of barium, barium sulfate
and barium carbonate, are often found in nature as underground ore
deposits (USPHS 1992).  It is also found in small quantities in igneous
rocks, feldspar and micas.  Pure Ba oxidizes readily and reacts with
water to emit hydrogen, which is similar to calcium (Weast et al 1987). 
Barium naturally occurs in most surface waters, and marine plants and
invertebrates may accumulate Ba from sea water.  General background of
Ba is very low.  However, the most likely source of elevated Ba is from
industrial emissions (USPHS 1992).  It is used by the oil and gas
industries to make drilling muds which augment rock drilling.  Barium
sulfate is used to make paints, bricks, tiles, glass, and rubber.  Due
to its particulate form, it is expected to have a residence time of
hundreds of years and is not expected to be very mobile in soils. 

The laboratory analysis during the first monitoring period did not
include Ba in the ICP analysis.  During the second monitoring period,
baseline elemental analyses of Ba and provisional thresholds have been
established for the Tongass.  Thresholds for target lichen species are
the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (15.84 ppm), Hypogymnia (16.46 ppm),
Lobaria oregana (76.62 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (53.80 ppm).  

Plot means for Ba are above threshold in Alesar for the Greens Creek
(plot 512) near the tailing pile and Endicott River wilderness (plot
508) (Figure IX-4).  Plot 1000 near Juneau and Endicott River wilderness
(plot 507) are at threshold in Alesar.  Plot means for Endicott River
wilderness plot 508 was above threshold for Hypogymnia (Figure IX-6). 
Plot means for Ba in the Stikine-LeConte wilderness plot 495 was
slightly above threshold in Lobore (Figure IX-8).  Plot means for Plagla
at Greens Creek (plots 511a and 512) and Endicott River wilderness (plot
508) contain elevated Ba (Figures IX-10).

IX. SUMMARY OF Ba PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure IX-1. Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure IX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in All Species per year. 



Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XI-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.65	0.5999	0.4113	2.8934

2005	Non-Wilderness	20.39	13.2402	0	54.4205

2005	Wilderness	4.28	2.1299	0	9.0980



No t-tests were performed on this data due to lack of repeated samples. 
The values for Ba are baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in the Ba content in Alesar after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures IX-3, IX-4
for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure IX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure IX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Percent Sulfur	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	3.50	0.6441	1.8491	5.1605

2005	Non-Wilderness	55.13	9.0562	16.1617	94.0930

2005	Wilderness	25.42	9.1365	4.3554	46.4929



No t-tests were performed on this data due to lack of repeat samples. 
The values for Ba are baseline for Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-5, IX-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure IX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table IX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	9.03	2.5273	2.8483	15.2166

2005	Non-Wilderness	12.98	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	4.13	3.1883	-6.0131	14.2803



No t-tests were performed on this data.  The values for Ba are baseline
for Lobaria oregana.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-6, IX-6 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure IX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table IX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ba ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ba ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	12.49	3.6615	4.2085	20.7742

2005	Non-Wilderness	38.39	5.3959	26.1874	50.6000

2005	Wilderness	23.15	7.3451	5.7827	40.5196



No t-tests were performed on this data.  The values for Ba are baseline
for Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ba content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures IX-9, IX-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure IX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ba ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure IX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ba ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

IX. Conclusions for Barium and all lichen species.

Background levels for barium have not been compiled for the Pacific
Northwest region (USDA 1999).  

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Plot mean for Ba is quite elevated above threshold for plot 512 (over 80
ppm in Figure IX-4) (Greens Creek tailings pile).  The yearly means for
Ba in all non- wilderness plots are elevated above threshold (over 20
ppm in Figure IX-5).  Above threshold values in lichens are most likely
due to the close proximity of the plots to the road system dusts and the
tailings pile at Greens Creek.  Plot 508 in Endicott Wilderness is
slightly elevated above threshold, along with plots 507 (upper Endicott
River) and 1000 (Mt Roberts) at threshold.  Higher Ba from upper
Endicott River plots could be due to the glacial influence and exposed
geology in the area.  The lower slope of Mt Roberts is also the home of
a closed mine, near the cruise ship dock and downtown Juneau, all of
which could account for the higher levels of Ba at 175 ft (compared to
the Mt Roberts plots at higher elevations that are not elevated). 

Hypogymnia

Plot mean for Ba is slightly elevated in the Endicott River wilderness
plot 508.  This plot is located upstream from the mouth of the river at
least 10 miles and is not near a point pollution source.  Source of
barium is most likely attributed to natural airborne dusts from nearby
Glacier Bay and exposed rocks. 

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Mean Ba in Lobore from Plot 495 from Flemer Cabin on the Stikine River
is elevated above threshold.  This could be attributed to the proximity
to the nearby glaciers up the river in British Columbia. 

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Mean Ba in two places from Greens Creek have elevated levels in Plagla.
Plot 511b is at the portal of the mine and plot 512 is near the tailing
pile and elevated levels are likely due to this industry.  The
wilderness plot 508 from Endicott River is also elevated in Ba.  This
may be due to the proximity to windblown dust from Glacier Bay and
Canada.X. Summary of results for Beryllium (Be) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Beryllium in almost all forms is known to have adverse effects upon
human health.  Beryllium extraction processes generate emissions that
include beryllium salts, acids, beryllium oxide and other compounds in
the form of dust, fume or mist.  

Beryllium values are not discussed further in this report as the levels
of Be in Tongass lichens were below the detection limits of .04 ppm in
ICP machine. 

XI. Summary of results for Calcium (Ca) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Calcium is the fifth most abundant metallic element in the earth’s
crust.  It is particulary abundant in sites that have limestone or
carbonate geology.  Areas that have exposed rocks will have Ca
enrichment in lichens and levels will appear elevated (USDA 1999).  This
may be in areas near roads, glaciers, cliffs and other exposed rock
areas.  While Ca can be enhanced near urban/industrial areas, it is also
found in lichens near the seashore as surface layers of the ocean are
also sources for this element (Davidson et al. 1985; Neiboer et al
1978).  Neiboer and Richardson (1981) define Ca background levels in
lichens to be less than 1000 ppm in areas without marine or crustal
influences. 

Southeast Alaska is an area of strong marine influence.  Many of the
lichen biomonitoring plots are located within a few miles of saltwater,
and some are on the beach fringe forest edge ecotone.  Threshold for Ca
in all lichens from the Tongass are above background (> 1000 ppm) for
non-enriched areas: Alectoria sarmentosa (9689.25 ppm), Hypogymnia
(24671.17ppm), Lobaria oregana (1158.10 ppm) and Platismatia glauca
(4104.48 ppm). 

Plot means for Ca in Alesar are elevated above threshold in a few
maritime plots on Kuiu Island (#81) and on Revilla Island (#130) (Figure
XI- 4).  Plot means for Hypogymnia are at or above threshold for plot
506 (lower Endicott River) and plot 79 (Kell Bay, Kuiu) (Figure XI-6). 
Mean Ca in plot 506 on the Endicott River is above threshold in Lobaria
oregana and Platismatia glauca (Figures XI-8 and XI-10 respectively). 

XI. SUMMARY OF Ca PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XI-1. Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2081.72	529.9073	610.4615	3552.9785

1989	Wilderness	5234.99	954.3677	2781.7141	7688.2748

1990	Non-Wilderness	3567.36	560.4786	2415.2845	4719.4451

1990	Wilderness	4729.97	1012.8840	2251.5300	7208.4080

1991	Non-Wilderness	6727.52	1359.4200	3871.4850	9583.5570

1991	Wilderness	6504.13	1181.7710	3223.0110	9785.2540

1992	Non-Wilderness	4556.83	NA	2775.5152	6338.1427

2003	Wilderness	1889.64	776.6950	7979.2070	11758.4840

2004	Wilderness	4146.98	373.4374	3374.4615	4919.4896

2005	Non-Wilderness	3604.71	463.4197	2413.4502	4795.9665

2005	Wilderness	6938.53	604.0697	5572.0295	8305.0305



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 1.5029, df = 8, p-value = 0.1713

There is no evidence of a difference in Ca content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1713).
Samples remeasured are from the wilderness areas of: Tebenkof Bay (#33),
Pleasant Island (# 145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (#69), Petersburg Creek (#
116), Kootznoowoo (# 189, 190), and Karta River (# 159). 

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-3, XI-4 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	4245.50	1452.5000	14210.2600	22701.2600

1989	Wilderness	10509.67	2082.5800	4727.4980	16291.8350

1990	Non-Wilderness	10596.47	1541.7000	7357.4740	13835.4560

1990	Wilderness	10759.10	2303.8300	5121.8270	16396.3630

2003	Wilderness	9740.80	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	9139.63	1222.0490	5998.2480	12281.0040

2005	Non-Wilderness	10365.47	1652.7150	3254.4090	17476.5250

2005	Wilderness	14090.39	1292.1380	11110.7120	17070.0650



T-tests were not performed with Hypogymnia data due to no repeated
samples.

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-5, XI-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	334.17	19.7224	271.4013	396.9321

1989	Wilderness	390.24	35.9300	290.4857	490.0010

1990	Non-Wilderness	467.88	27.8034	407.3061	528.4631

1990	Wilderness	418.34	28.4251	345.2751	491.4133

2004	Wilderness	739.66	76.1875	553.2329	926.0812

2005	Non-Wilderness	877.24	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	698.11	262.3059	NA	1532.8808



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.4706, df = 4, p-value = 0.2153

There is no evidence of a difference in Ca content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2153).  Wilderness
areas remeasured are Tebenkof (#33), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), and
Misty Fiords (#86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-5, XI-6 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ca ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ca ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	2505.97	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	2294.39	219.3717	1798.1345	2790.6412

2005	Non-Wilderness	2523.86	235.6644	1990.7517	3056.9716

2005	Wilderness	2860.64	380.3439	1961.2671	3760.0079



No t-tests were performed on this data.  The mean values for Ca are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ca content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XI-9, XI-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XI-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ca ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XI-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ca ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: For Calcium (Ca) and all lichen species

Background levels of Ca for seashore enhanced lichens vary among species
and range between 40,000 and 50,000 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass thresholds
for Ca range between 1158 and 24,671 ppm which are well below the levels
considered enhanced by the seashore environment.  High precipitation on
the Tongass eventually washes nutrients and other elements from the
lichen thalli over time.  However, the Ca in all lichen species analysed
from the Tongass is higher than background levels (those that are not
enhanced by the seashore) found in the Pacific Northwest (USDA 1999). 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Calcium background level for Alesar in the Pacific Northwest is 2500
ppm, which is well below the 9689 ppm threshold for Ca on the Tongass
(USDA 1999).  Very few plots are above threshold for Ca in Alesar. 
Plots 130 (Settlers Cove on Revilla Island) and 81 (Kell Bay on Kuiu
Island) from the baseline monitoring period are above threshold (Figure
XI-4).  Both of these plots are near marine beaches in exposed
locations.  Just at or below threshold are plots 514, 513 (Coronation)
and 507 (Endicott River), all of which are located in areas with
calcareous geology (Nowacki et al. 2001).  Plot 33 from Tebenkof
wilderness is particulary high in total sulfur (Figure V-4), and yet it
was one of the lowest in Ca (Figure XI-4).  In Geiser et al (1994) there
were depressed levels of calcium near the pulp mill in Sitka, which was
interpreted as damage from high sulfur from that industry.  

Hypogymnia, Lobaria oregana (Lobore) and Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Plot 506 from the lower Endicott River contains elevated levels for Ca
in Hypogymnia, Lobore and Plagla that are probably related to the
carbonate geology on the river and surrounding landscape (Nowacki et al
2001).  

XII. Summary of results for Cadmium (Cd) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Cadmium is an element that occurs naturally in the earths crust.  In the
pure form, it is a soft metal but it is not found in the environment as
a metal.  It is usually found combined with other elements such as
oxygen (cadmium oxide) chlorine (cadmium chloride) or sulfur (cadmium
sulfate or sulfide) (USPHS 1993).  Cadmium can enter the air from the
buring of coal and household waste, or in the metal mining and refining
process.  Attached to small particles in the air, Cd may get into the
air and travel great distances before coming back to earth as dust or in
rain and snow.  Where it lands, it does not break down and is eventually
taken up by fish, plants and animals (USPHS 1993).

As expected, thresholds for Cd in all lichens from the Tongass are below
the mine and smelter enhanced levels (30 to 330 ppm).  Threshold levels
are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (.40 ppm), Hypogymnia (.61ppm),
Lobaria oregana (.55 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (.32 ppm). 

Some areas contain elevated levels of mean Cd above threshold: plots
108, 107 (Sitka road system), 76 (Dog Island), 221 (Douglas Island), 512
(Greens Creek tailings pile), 189 (Kootznoowoo) and 118 (Mitkof Island)
for Alesar (Figure XII-4).  Mean levels are elevated in Hypogymnia for
the plots 511b (Greens Creek mine portal) and plot 512 (Greens Creek
tailing pile) (Figure XII-6).  Plot 110 (Amalga Trail) is the only area
with elevated levels in Lobore (Figure XII-8).  Greens Creek mine
contains elevated levels of Cd from three locations in Plagla (plot
511a, 511b and 512) (Figure XLL-10). 

There is suggestive evidence that Cd levels have changed from the
pre-2000 (baseline monitoring period) to the post 2000 (second
monitoring period) for three wilderness areas in Lobaria oregana (Table
XII-3). 

XII. SUMMARY OF Cd PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XII-1. Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.13	0.0087	0.1068	0.1552

1989	Wilderness	0.14	0.0327	0.0576	0.2257

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.29	0.0527	0.1768	0.3936

1990	Wilderness	0.21	0.0315	0.1320	0.2861

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.2189	0.0205	0.1757	0.2620

1991	Wilderness	0.30	0.0474	0.1722	0.4355

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.21	0.0657	0.0533	0.3642

2003	Wilderness	0.12	0.0000	0.1200	0.1200

2004	Wilderness	0.16	0.0125	0.1383	0.1902

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.37	0.1416	0.0072	0.7353

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0004	0.2197	0.2215



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 0.957, df = 8, p-value = 0.3666

There is no evidence of a difference in Cd content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3666). 
Plots with repeated samples for Cd in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cd content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XII-3, XII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results). 

Figure XII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.15	0.0500	0.4853	0.7853

1989	Wilderness	0.22	0.0726	0.0150	0.4184

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.35	0.0623	0.2235	0.4853

1990	Wilderness	0.30	0.0570	0.1557	0.4347

2003	Wilderness	0.17	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.26	0.0711	0.0809	0.4466

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.04	1.4535	3.2093	9.2986

2005	Wilderness	0.31	0.0576	0.1775	0.4432



No t-tests were performed on this data due to any repeated samples.

Relationships are not strong in Cd content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XII-5,
XII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year.  

Lobaria oregana

Table XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.10	0.0000	0.1000	0.1000

1989	Wilderness	0.18	0.0800	0.0421	0.4021

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.15	0.0519	0.0388	0.2651

1990	Wilderness	0.20	0.0664	0.0261	0.3673

2004	Wilderness	0.12	0.0000	0.1200	0.1200

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.22	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0000	0.2200	0.2200



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -2.5145, df = 4, p-value = 0.0657

There is suggestive evidence of a slight difference in Cd content in
Lobaria oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0657). 
This analysis was for three wilderness areas that had repeated values
for Cd in Lobaria oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33) and
Misty Fiords (# 86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the Cd content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures XII-7,
XII-8 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year.  



Platismatia glauca

Table XII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cd ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cd ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.12	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.16	0.0298	0.0878	0.2227

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.71	0.9383	0.4089	3.8361

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0000	0.2200	0.2200



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cd are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cd content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XII-9, XII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cd ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cd ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Cadmium (Cd) and all lichen species

Cadmium in lichens from enhanced areas due to mining and smelter
activities range between 30 and 330 ppm, depending on the species (USDA
1999).  The highest Cd levels in lichens on the Tongass are from near
the tailings pile (between 1.0 and 4.0 ppm) and near the mine portal
(between 5 ppm and 10ppm) at Greens Creek.  The high rainfall in our
region may flush the accumulation of Cd from lichens and other
vegetation around the mining zone, but individual plot means near the
mine are still higher than provisional threshold levels.  Since the Cd
levels are slightly higher in all species compared to the Pacific
Northwest background levels, it may be that the lichens are universally
enhanced in Cd due to the marine and crustal influence. 

There is suggestive evidence that Cd levels have changed from the
pre-2000 (baseline monitoring period) to the post 2000 (second
monitoring period) for three wilderness areas: Stikine-LeConte, Tebenkof
and Misty Fiords (Table XII-3).  The slight change over time of Cd in
Lobaria oregana cannot be explained except for the natural variation in
Cd, as these areas are not near industry.  

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Threshold for Cd in Alesar on the Tongass is slightly higher than in the
Pacific Northwest (.40 ppm compared to .20 ppm respectively) (USDA
1999).  This may be attributed to the natural variation of Cd in lichens
explained by environmental factors such as oceanic influence and the
geology of the region.  Some locations on the Tongass contain above
threshold for Cd in Alesar such as on the Sitka road system near the
pulp mill from the early 1990’s (plots 107, 108), Greens Creek tailing
pile area ( plot 512), Dog Island (Plot 76), and Douglas Island near
Eaglecrest (plot 221).  Mitkof Island on Froot Road (plot 118) and
Kootznoowoo wilderness in Gambier Bay (189) were slightly above
threshold (Figure XII-4).  Plot 189 on Admiralty Island was remeasured
during the second monitoring period and Cd levels are not statistically
different from the first monitoring period (Table XII-2).  Douglas
Island (plot 221) is about 1300 ft off the Eagle Creek Road and elevated
Cd levels could be attributed to the ski and housing developments, and
automobile traffic in the area.  It was not revisited in the second
monitoring period.  There is also mining history on Douglas Island.  Dog
Island (plot 76) is a small island off of Duke Island, and consists of
gabbro, which is an igneous rock and can contain Cd as a mineral.  The
slightly elevated levels of Cd on Mitkof and Admiralty Islands must be
part of the natural variation of Cd on the Tongass. 

Hypogymnia 

Background level for Cd in Hypogymnia in the Pacific Northwest is .25
ppm (USDA 1999), which is slightly lower than the Tongass threshold of
.61 ppm.  Plots from Greens Creek contain Cd levels nearly four times
above threshold (Figure XII-6).  Plots 511b (near the portal) and 512
(tailings pile) are near the industrial sections and road corridors of
the mine, so it is likely these are the sources of the Cd in the
lichens.  Lichens at the tailing pile muskeg appeared healthy, but the
lichens from the trees near the portal were covered in road dust and did
not appear very robust.  Douglas Island plot 112 near Eaglecrest also
contains slightly elevated Cd, which could be attributed to close
proximity to development in that area.  Sitka road system plot 246 is
elevated above threshold during the first monitoring period and was not
revisited.  Elevated levels are probably due to the proximity to the
road and the pulp mill.  Endicott River wilderness plot 506 has slightly
elevated levels of Cd which is unexplained at this time except for
natural variation and crustal sources.

Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Plot 110 from the Amalga Trail area in Juneau is above threshold for Cd
(Figure XII-8).  This area is in the vicinity of a mine from the past
century and could explain the elevated levels.  Exposed rock can produce
windblown dust in the area, as well as the surrounding glaciers.  The
suggestive evidence in the changes of mean Cd levels (Table XII-3) may
be due to the natural variation and not human enhancement of Cd in the
wilderness areas sampled (ie in Tebenkof).

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Pacific Northwest background for Cd in Plagla is .25 ppm, while the
Tongass threshold is .32 ppm (USDA 1999).  All three Greens Creek plots
contain elevated levels of Cd, with the area closest to the portal at
the bridge being the highest among all the plots analyzed on the Tongass
(at over 9.0 ppm) (Figure XIV-10).  While not as high as the 30 ppm that
is considered the low end for mine enhanced levels (USDA 1999), it is
high considering the amount of rainfall and leaching that occurs in this
hyper maritime region. 

XIII. Summary of results for Cobalt (Co) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Cobolt is a compound that occurs in nature and in many different
chemical forms.  It is not currently mined in the United States.  All
cobalt used in industry is imported or obtained by recycling scrap
metals.  Cobalt is used to make alloys, colored pigments, and for
enameled paints on appliances.  It is part of vitamin B-12 that is
essential for human health.  Natural sources of cobalt are soils, dust
and seawater.  It is also released into the environment from burning oil
and coal, and from automobile exhaust (USPHS 1992) 

Cobalt detection levels in the ICP analysis varied between 2004 and
2005.  In 2004, the Co detection in the ICP machine was .240 ppm.  In
2005, the ICP utilized had a higher detection limit of .780 ppm. 
Samples of Alesar were below detection limit of .78 for Co.  Provisional
threshold of colbalt on the Tongass are: Hypogymnia (1.25 ppm), Lobaria
oregana (.83 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (1.14 ppm).  Cobalt was not
analyzed in the first monitoring period, or in the 2003 samples. 
Therefore, threshold were established from 2004 and 2005 data. 

Elevated levels of Co are reported for Hypogymnia from plot 512 (Greens
Creek tailing pile), and 62 (Russell Fiord Harlequin Lake area) (Figure
XIIV-6).  For Lobore plot 62 (Russell Fiords) is just above threshold
(Figure XIIV-8).  For Plagla plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings) and 508
and 506 (Endicott River wilderness) are elevated above threshold (Figure
XIIV-10).

XIII. SUMMARY OF Co PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XIII-1. Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in All Species per year. 



Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Co	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800

2005	Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
below the detection limit of the ICP machine. Baseline in Alectoria
sarmentosa is .78 ppm.

Figure XIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.11	0.1754	0.3530	1.8626

2005	Wilderness	0.84	0.0579	0.7044	0.9714



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Figure XIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.85	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.78	0.0000	0.7800	0.7800



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Figure XIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Co ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Co ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0000	0.2400	0.2400

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.86	0.0611	0.7240	1.0006

2005	Wilderness	0.87	0.0592	0.7304	1.0101



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Co are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Figure XIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Co ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Co ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Colbalt (Co) and all lichen species

Background levels for Co are not available from the Pacific Northwest. 
Tongass thresholds are just above the ICP detection limit for Co, which
indicates that background on the Tongass lichens are very low.  The
locations that indicate elevated levels may be enhanced due to crustal
influences.  Plot 512 from Greens Creek is elevated in both Hypogymnia
and Plagla, indicating that the exposed rock from the tailings pile may
be the source.  Plot 62 from Russell Fiord is above threshold in Co for
the Hypogymnia and Lobore samples.  This plot is near the airstrip, the
dirt road and Dangerous River Bridge, and receives windblown dusts from
the surrounding glaciers and exposed rocks.  Endicott River plots 508
(upper river) and 506 (near saltwater) are at threshold, and may be
elevated above the ICP detection limit due to natural sources of the
highly glaciated area.

XIV. Summary of results for Chromium (Cr) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Chromium is a naturally occurring element found in rocks, animals,
plants, soil, and volcanic dust and gases.  It is present in the
environment in different forms.  The common forms are chromium 0,
chromium III and chromium VI.  Chromium III occurs naturally and is an
essential nutrient for humans (USPHS 1990).  Chromium VI and 0 are
generally produced by industrial processes such as producing steel and
brick linings for furnaces, and through the burning of coal and oil.  In
smaller amounts it is used in drilling muds for mining, rust and
corrosion inhibitors, textiles and toner for copy machines. In the air,
chromium compounds are present as a fine dust, and rain and snow help
remove it from the air.  The different types of chromium are not
differentiated in the ICP analysis. 

Provisional thresholds for Cr on the Tongass are: Alectoria sarmentosa
(.73 ppm) Hypogymnia (2.38 ppm), Lobaria oregana (1.51 ppm) and
Platismatia glauca (3.29 ppm).  

Plots elevated above threshold for Cr are the following: from Sitka road
system plots 236, 239, 242, 243, 244, 245, and 246 (Figures XIV-4, 6 and
8),  Greens Creek  plots 512 and 511b (Figures XIV-10), Berners Bay plot
113  (Figure XIV-4) Harlequin Lake plot 62 (Figures XIV-8 and 10),
downtown Juneau plot 1000 (Figures XIV-10) and Yakutat road system plot
66 (Figure XIV-4 and 6).

XIV. SUMMARY OF Cr PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XIV-1. Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XIV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in All Species per year. 



Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XIV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.30	0.0422	0.1807	0.4153

1989	Wilderness	0.21	0.0712	0.0253	0.3914

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.49	0.0650	0.3587	0.6261

1990	Wilderness	0.39	0.0969	0.1573	0.6317

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.2420	0.0176	0.2050	0.2790

1991	Wilderness	0.26	0.0547	0.1063	0.4098

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.43	0.0633	0.2809	0.5801

2003	Wilderness	0.32	0.0148	0.1270	0.5040

2004	Wilderness	0.31	0.0214	0.2669	0.3556

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.44	0.0869	0.2152	0.6622

2005	Wilderness	0.29	0.0034	0.2783	0.2936



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.3201, df = 8, p-value = 0.7571

There is no evidence of a difference in Cr content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.7571). 
Plots with repeated samples for cadmium in Alesar are: Karta River
(#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo
(# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi
(#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cr content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XIV-3, XIV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XIV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.75	0.4500	4.9678	6.4678

1989	Wilderness	0.78	0.2223	0.1629	1.3971

1990	Non-Wilderness	2.84	0.6270	1.5275	4.1620

1990	Wilderness	0.66	0.1472	0.2969	1.0174

2003	Wilderness	0.55	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.50	0.1066	0.2285	0.7766

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.97	1.1188	0.8457	8.7817

2005	Wilderness	0.90	0.2141	0.4055	1.3927



No t-tests were performed on this data due to the lack of repeat samples
of Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Cr content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIV-5,
XIV-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XIV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.51	0.0344	0.3990	0.6177

1989	Wilderness	0.28	0.1005	-0.0038	0.5545

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.62	0.1445	0.3005	0.9302

1990	Wilderness	0.38	0.1932	-0.1181	0.8753

2004	Wilderness	0.75	0.1450	0.3920	1.1017

2005	Non-Wilderness	2.32	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.41	0.0994	0.0943	0.7272



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.19, df = 4, p-value = 0.2999

There is no evidence of a difference in Cr ppm content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2999).  This
analysis was for three wilderness areas that had repeated values for
chromium in Lobaria oregana, Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Tebenkof (#33)
and Misty Fiords (# 86, 88).

Relationships are not strong in the Cr content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures XIV-7,
XIV-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XIV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cr ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.58	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.94	0.1798	0.5371	1.3504

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.02	0.5248	1.8331	4.2077

2005	Wilderness	1.17	0.3019	0.4538	1.8817



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cr are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cr content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIV-9, XIV-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XIV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cr ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XIV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cr ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Chromium (Cr) and all lichen species

Smelter and mine enhanced values for Cr are between 25 and 130 ppm (USDA
1999).  The highest value for Cr on the Tongass is the Greens Creek
tailing pile from Plagla at nearly 7ppm (Figure XIV-10).  Precipitation
has helped to remove the accumulated Cr from the lichens in this
industrial area. Plot 62, just inside the Russell Fiords wilderness, is
above threshold in three lichen species for Cr, but means levels are
lower than Greens Creek area. 

Alectoria sarmentosa (Alesar)

Background for Cr in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest is .50 ppm, which
is slightly lower than the Tongass threshold of .73 ppm (USDA 1999). 
Analysis from the second monitoring period contains Plot 494 on the
Stikine River and plot 512 from Greens Creek above threshold for Cr in
Alesar (Figure XIV-4).  It is unclear why the Stikine River plot at
Andrews Slough is elevated in Cr as no industrial sources are nearby. 
Elevated levels may pertain to the geology of the area and the glacial
dusts that blow down the Stikine corridor.  The Greens Creek tailing
pile and the associated road are most likely the source of Cr in Alesar
as it is emitted in the mining process and is a natural occurring
substance in rock.  From the baseline monitoring period, four plots are
elevated above threshold; 113 (Berners Bay), 246 and 240 (Sitka road
system near mill), and 66 (Yakutat road system near Greens Pond). 
Elevated Cr near roads is probably due to vehicle traffic and dust that
potentially brings Cr into the air from where it eventually settles on
the lichens nearby.  The Yakutat area also receives windblown soils from
the Yukon and could enhance certain elemental values.  Berner’s Bay
elevated levels is unexplained, however this area was the site of old
mines in the past century.  It is now the site of a large mine, and so
the geology may play a role in the elevated levels.  Repeated sampling
in that area may reveal changes in many elements as the mine continues
to develop.

Hypogymnia

Background level of Cr in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest is
between 2 and 3 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold is between these
values at 2.38 ppm.  From the baseline monitoring period, plots 236,
239, 242, 243, 244, 245 (Sitka road system) and 66 (Yakutat Greens
pond), are elevated above threshold.  This can be explained by the close
proximity to unpaved roads and proximity to industry (in the case of
Sitka).  The second monitoring period revealed two places, plot 62 near
Harlequin Lake and plot 512 ( Greens Creek tailing pile) as above
threshold.  Harlequin Lake is also high in Cr from Plagla.  Therefore
high Cr may be due to the close proximity to the Dangerous River Bridge,
air traffic at the gravel airstrip, or windblown dusts from the north.  


Lobaria oregana (Lobore)

Background for Cr in Lobore is 1 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold is
similar at 1.51 ppm.  Plot 246 from the Sitka road system and plot 62
from Harlequin Lake were both above threshold level for Cr in Lobore at
2.0 ppm and above (Figure XIV-8).  The Sitka road system vehicle traffic
and proximity to the pulp mill can help explain elevated levels.  The
Alesar from this plot was also elevated in Cr.  The plot near Harlequin
Lake and the Dangerous River is elevated in Cr from Lobore, as well as
Hypogymnia and Plagla (see Figures XIV-8, 6 and 10).  See explanations
for elevated Cr levels above under Hypogymnia. 

Platismatia glauca (Plagla)

Background for Plagla in the Pacific Northwest for Cr is 2.0 ppm (USDA
1999).  Tongass threshold is slightly higher at 3.29 ppm.  Several plots
where Plagla was collected have elevated Cr above thresholds.  Greens
Creek plots 512 (tailings pile) and 511b (near portal) are both high in
Cr (Figure XIV-10).  This is most likely explained by the close
proximity to the industry and the roads.  Plot 1000 is 175 feet above
the cruise ship docking area and downtown Juneau which could be sources
of Cr.  Harlequin Lake plot 62 is elevated in Cr for three lichen
species (Figures XIV-6, 8 and 10).  More repeated sampling may be needed
to determine if this is part of the natural variation of Cr in areas
that are near glaciers and interior dust storms

XV. Summary of results for Copper (Cu) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Copper is a metal that occurs naturally in rock, soil, water, sediment,
and air.  On the average, the concentration of copper in the earth’s
crust is about 50 ppm (USPHS 1990).  It is an essential element for all
living organisims including humans and other animals.  Many compounds
exist, including both natural and man-made.  The most commonly used
compound is copper sulfate.  Copper is extensively mined and processed
in the US.  Some copper in the environment is less tightly bound to dirt
particals and can be taken up by plants and animals.  Other copper
compounds are so stringly attached to to dust and dirt, or embedded in
minerals that they cannot easily be enhaled or absorbed.  

Thresholds for Cu on the Tongass are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(1.86 ppm), Hypogymnia (31.31 ppm), Lobaria oregana (10.18) and
Platismatia glauca (7.55 ppm). 

Lichens with plot means elevated in Cu above threshold in Alesar
include: plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile), downtown Juneau above
cruise ships (plot 1000) and Tebenkof Bay (plot 033) (Figure XV-4). 
Plots with elevated Cu in Hypogymnia include: Petersburg Creek
wilderness (plot 237) Sitka road system (plot 239), and Greens Creek
(Plot 512 and 511b) (Figure XV-6).  Plots with elevated levels of Cu in
Lobore include: Yakutat road system (064 and 066) and Harlequin Lake
(062) (Figure XV-8).  For Plagla, elevated Cu was found at Greens Creek
(plots 511a, 511b, and 512) (Figure XV-10).

XV. SUMMARY OF Cu PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XV-1. Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.57	0.0882	0.3278	0.8178

1989	Wilderness	0.82	0.1500	0.4340	1.2053

1990	Non-Wilderness	1.13	0.1382	0.8430	1.4111

1990	Wilderness	0.81	0.1116	0.5357	1.0819

1991	Non-Wilderness	2.6288	1.6673	0.8741	6.1316

1991	Wilderness	0.98	0.0606	0.8124	1.1487

1992	Non-Wilderness	1.09	0.0759	0.9061	1.2649

2003	Wilderness	0.80	0.2785	2.7402	4.3372

2004	Wilderness	0.86	0.0944	0.6616	1.0522

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.88	0.4529	0.7204	3.0487

2005	Wilderness	0.96	0.1280	0.6719	1.2511



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.4902, df = 8, p-value = 0.6371

There is no evidence of a difference in Cu content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.6371). 
Plots with repeated samples for copper in Alesar are: Karta River
(#159), Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo
(# 189, 190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi
(#101), Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Cu content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year ( Figures
XV-3, XV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.81	1.1650	12.9977	16.6077

1989	Wilderness	4.48	0.7630	2.3619	6.5988

1990	Non-Wilderness	12.63	4.8302	2.4776	22.7735

1990	Wilderness	24.51	21.0863	27.0854	76.1073

2003	Wilderness	2.55	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	3.57	0.2028	3.0491	4.0920

2005	Non-Wilderness	39.17	12.5573	14.8553	93.2039

2005	Wilderness	4.58	0.7303	2.8918	6.2601



No t-tests were performed on these data due to lack of repeat samples of
Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Cu content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-5, XV-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2.57	0.9786	-0.5428	5.6861

1989	Wilderness	3.63	0.7151	1.6415	5.6126

1990	Non-Wilderness	6.20	0.9823	4.0605	8.3410

1990	Wilderness	4.34	1.1448	1.3957	7.2812

2004	Wilderness	4.36	0.9396	2.0595	6.6578

2005	Non-Wilderness	11.34	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	3.52	0.9518	0.4891	6.5474



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.438, df = 4, p-value = 0.684

There is suggestive evidence of a difference in Cu ppm content in
Lobaria oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0684). 
This analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for
copper in Lobaria oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake),
Tebenkof (33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88).  This is probably due to the
Harlequin Lake plot 62 being above threshold in Cu during the second
monitoring period. 

Relationships are not strong in the Cu content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-7, XV-8
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results

Figure XV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Cu ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Cu ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	1.86	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	2.72	0.3458	1.9337	3.4983

2005	Non-Wilderness	21.42	9.3170	0.3387	42.4915

2005	Wilderness	3.67	0.7104	1.9930	5.3526



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Cu are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Cu content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XV-9, XV-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Cu ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Cu ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Copper (Cu) and all lichen species

Thresholds for copper on the Tongass are above baseline for the Pacific
Northwest in all species of lichens.  The closest in comparison is for
Alectoria sarmentosa, with the threshold of 1.86 ppm similar to the
Pacific Northwest baseline of 1.50 ppm (USDA 1999).  Threshold for
Hypogymnia (31.31 ppm) is within the range considered to be mine or
smelter enhanced for Cu (15 to 1100 ppm).  It is unclear why Cu in
Hypogymnia on the Tongass is high, but it is possible that the geology
near the Tongass plots is naturally high in copper and reflected in the
lichens sampled

Alectoria sarmentosa

Alesar is not a good accumulator compared to other lichens.  Mean Cu in
plot 512 at Greens Creek tailings is most likely elevated due to
windblown dusts from the tailings pile and the roads (Figure XV-4). 
High precipitation will also leach out metals from the lichens over
time.  Plot 1000 above the Juneau cruise ship docking area may be
elevated slightly above threshold due to proximity to the old mine in
the downtown area and other industrial activities.  Plot 33 from
Tebenkof is slightly elevated and this is unexplained at this time. 
This plot was also elevated in mean S and Al, and sources could be from
the ocean (Figure V-4 and VII-4).  Plots 108 and 240 are close to the
pulp mill and elevated Cu could be from this industry and associated
road dusts.

Hypogymnia

Background level of Cu in the Pacific Northwest is between 4 and 7 ppm
(USDA 1999).  In spite of the high rainfall in this region, threshold
for Cu on the Tongass is within the range considered enhanced by mining
and smelter activities worldwide (USDA 1999).  Cu may be universally
enhanced in southeast Alaska which could explain the overall elevated
levels.  Elevated mean Cu for Greens Creek plots 512 and 511b (above 40
ppm) can be explained by the close proximity to the tailings pile and
the portal of the mine.  Greens Creek levels are within the range
considered enhanced by mining or smelter activities.  Sitka road system
plot 239 is close to the road system and pulp mill which could explain
the slightly elevated Cu.  Petersburg Creek plot 237 is elevated,
possibly due to natural geologic sources at Petersburg Lake (Figure
XV-6). 

Lobaria oregana

Background Cu from the Pacific Northwest is 5.00 ppm (USDA 1999).  The
Tongass threshold is double this at 10.18 ppm.  Plots elevated in Cu in
Lobore include several from the Yakutat area associated with the roads
(plots 66 and 64) (Figure XV-8).  Plot 62 from the Russell Fiords
wilderness is elevated in Cu, and could be attributed to the close
proximity to the bridge.  Copper is used in the preservation of wood and
the Dangerous River bridge construction with treated wood may be another
source of Cu.  The surrounding geology could also be a source of Cu for
this area, as this plot is also elevated in Al and Cr (Figures VII-8 and
XIV-8 respectively). 

Platismatia glauca

Threshold for Cu in Plagla on the Tongass is double the Cu background in
the Pacific Northwest (USDA 1999).  As stated above, SE Alaska and the
Tongass may be regionally higher in Cu due to geologic features.  Mean
Cu is elevated above threshold from all plots at Greens Creek in Plagla
(511a, 511b and 512) (Figure XV-10) and are within the range considered
enhanced by mining or smelter activities (close to 100 ppm at the mine
portal).  Copper is part of the extracted ore material.  It is unknown
how much farther from the portal Cu has accumulated, but levels drop off
between the portal and plot 511a established about 200 ft upstream from
the portal (Figure XV-10 compare 100 ppm to 30 ppm).  Levels from the
tailing pile area are slightly higher than plot 511a, and this
demonstrates that the copper in the tailings are accumulating in the
lichens in spite of the long distance from the portal. 

XVI. Summary of results for Iron (Fe) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Iron (Fe) is an element found in the earth’s crust.  Iron enters the
environment from anthropogenic sources including the production of
steel, mining, and the fly ash from coal burning.  Roadside environments
can also be enhanced with iron due to the abrasion of metals from
engines that eventually end up in exhaust (USDA 1999).  Iron is also a
micronutrient and is used in the metabolism of all living things.

Elemental thresholds for Fe on the Tongass are as follows: Alectoria
sarmentosa (55.64 ppm), Hypogymnia (1990.78ppm), Lobaria oregana
(1010.97 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (1773.56 ppm).  

Plots with elevated mean Fe in lichens include: Alesar plots 107, 240,
247, (Sitka road system), 33 (Tebenkof wilderness), 221 (Douglas Island
near Eaglecrest), 143 (near Whitestone Harbor on Chichagof), 219 (Rowan
Bay-Kuiu Island), 508 (Upper Endicott River), 512 (Greens Creek tailings
pile), 67 (Yakutat Road system),  and 1000 and 1002  (175 and 600 ft
above Juneau and cruise ship dock, respectively) (Figure VXI-4);
Hypogymnia  plot 243 (Sitka road system), and 512 (Greens Creek tailings
pile)(Figure XVI-6); Lobore plot 62 ( Harlequin Lake area) (Figure
XVI-8); Plagla plots 512 and 511b (Greens Creek)(XVI-10). 

XVI. SUMMARY OF Fe PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XVI-1. Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XVI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in All Species per year. 



Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XVI-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Fe ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Fe ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	9.02	2.3762	2.4226	15.6174

1989	Wilderness	11.76	1.3771	8.2156	15.2955

1990	Non-Wilderness	36.82	6.8413	22.7529	50.8779

1990	Wilderness	10.75	2.4898	4.6564	16.8408

1991	Non-Wilderness	27.4185	3.2779	20.5320	34.3050

1991	Wilderness	29.94	8.6782	5.8489	54.0382

1992	Non-Wilderness	50.66	13.2521	19.3265	81.9989

2003	Wilderness	27.34	11.2036	115.0199	169.6901

2004	Wilderness	24.86	2.4647	19.7637	29.9611

2005	Non-Wilderness	85.57	33.1719	0.3037	170.8460

2005	Wilderness	31.94	9.2438	11.0272	52.8490



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.4902, df = 8, p-value = 0.6371

There is no evidence of a difference in Fe ppm content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.6371). 
Plots with repeated samples for iron in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Fe content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XVI-3, XVI-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XVI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Fe ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XVI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XVI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Fe ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Fe ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	243.50	235.5000	2748.8110	3235.8110

1989	Wilderness	531.55	266.0219	207.0451	1270.1451

1990	Non-Wilderness	1055.45	226.9311	578.6828	1532.2120

1990	Wilderness	177.24	39.7317	80.0182	274.4580

2003	Wilderness	302.79	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	408.95	96.8329	160.0304	657.8641

2005	Non-Wilderness	3441.40	1205.8310	1746.8740	8629.6740

2005	Wilderness	691.24	228.0810	165.2831	1217.1946



No t-tests were performed on this data due to lack of repeat samples of
Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Fe content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVI-5,
XVI-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XVI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Fe ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XVI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XVI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Fe ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Fe ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	37.50	10.4292	4.3096	70.6904

1989	Wilderness	77.84	29.7676	-4.8049	160.4915

1990	Non-Wilderness	120.93	31.1713	53.0132	188.8458

1990	Wilderness	67.70	45.0773	NA	183.5724

2004	Wilderness	399.92	138.4878	61.0566	738.7914

2005	Non-Wilderness	1086.01	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	156.50	104.4616	NA	488.9397



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.3283, df = 4, p-value = 0.2548

There is no evidence of a difference in Fe ppm content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2548).  This
analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for iron in
Lobaria oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof
(33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Fe content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVI-7,
XVI-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results

 

Figure XVI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Fe ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XVI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XVI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Fe ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Fe ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	248.94	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	620.58	152.9757	274.5240	966.6342

2005	Non-Wilderness	1937.93	542.1553	711.4864	3164.3673

2005	Wilderness	764.37	251.0329	170.7707	1357.9677



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Fe are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Fe content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVI-9, XVI-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XVI-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Fe ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XVI-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Fe ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Iron (Fe) and all lichen species

Enhanced Fe in lichens due to mining and smelter activities is between
400 and 16,000 ppm depending on the species (USDA 1999).  Background Fe
in Platismatia glauca and Hypogymnia enteromorpha from the Pacific
Northwest are just within this enhanced range (700 ppm and 800 ppm
respectively) (USDA 1999).  The enhanced range for Fe is established
from worldwide reports and a variety of lichen species.  Most of the
Tongass threshold levels for Fe in all species except Alesar are also
within the range of enhanced values (Table XXXII-1 for thresholds by
element) which may indicate that Fe is universally present in the region
due to the geology and natural processes.  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background Fe in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest is 40 ppm (USDA 1999)
which is slightly lower than the Tongass threshold of 55.64 ppm.  Fe may
be regionally enhanced as explained above.  A few plots with Alesar
around the Sitka mill and road system are elevated in Fe (240, 247 and
107).  This can probably be attributed to the proximity to roads and
machinery at the mill site at the time of lichen sampling.  Plot 221 is
on Douglas Island, near the road to Eaglecrest Ski Area, which probably
contributes to elevated Fe.  Similarly, plots 67 (Yakutat), 72 (Old
Tom’s Place POW), 143 (Whitestone Harbor area), and 219 (Rowan Bay
Kuiu) are all close to existing unpaved roads which could contribute to
elevated Fe (Figure XVI-4).  The wilderness areas of Endicott River
(plot 508) and Tebenkof (plot 33) are slightly elevated in Fe.  Tebenkof
was also elevated in Al, and like Al, Fe can be attributed to crustal
sources rather than anthropogenic since no roads are near these areas. 
Endicott River wilderness plot 508 is elevated in many elements which
indicate the air in this area must be geologically enhanced with
windblown dusts.  Plots above the cruise ship docking area in downtown
Juneau ( at 175 ft and 600 ft) may be elevated in Fe above threshold due
to proximity to downtown exhaust, cruise ship emissions, and the nearby
closed mine with exposed rock in the vicinity.  Plot 512 is near the
Greens Creek tailings pile and enhanced due to the ores associated with
the present mining.  Mean Fe in Alesar from the tailings pile are the
highest on the Tongass, at nearly 250 ppm (Figure XVI-4). 

Hypogymnia

Two plots (243 and 512) are elevated above threshold in Fe for
Hypogymnia (Figure XVI-6).  Plot 243 is on the Sitka road system which
helps explain the Fe enhancement.  Plot 512 is near the tailings pile at
Greens Creek.  Mean Fe level is near 6000 ppm which is well within the
range reported for enhanced areas due to mining (USDA 1999).  

Lobaria oregana.  

Plot 62 is elevated in Fe for Lobore (Figure XVI-8).  This plot is in
the Harlequin Lake area and may be enhanced with Fe from the airstrip
activities, the nearby unpaved road or geologic sources.  

Platismatia glauca

The lichen Plagla at Greens Creek tailings pile and mine portal (512 and
511b) is most likely enhanced in Fe due to proximity to the mined ore
and associated roads and machinery (Figure XVI-10). 

XVII. Summary of results for Potassium (K) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Potassium (K) is an alkali metal that occurs naturally bound to elements
in the earth’s crust, seawater, and air.  It is one of the most highly
reactive metals and is rarely used alone for human purposes.  Combined
with other elements such as sodium or chloride, it forms compounds that
are found in many items such as glass, soap and fertilizer.  Air
pollution from wood burning and industry contain potassium. 

Provisional thresholds for K are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(2413.25 ppm), Hypogymnia (3284.34 ppm), Lobaria oregana (8001.57 ppm)
and Platismatia glauca (2523.88 ppm). 

Several locations were elevated above threshold in K including:  Alesar
plots 1000 (175 ft above Juneau) and plot 33 ( Tebenkof wilderness), on
the edge of threshold for Alesar are plots 508 (Endicott River) and plot
113 (Berners Bay) (Figure XVIII-4); Hypogymnia plots 511b (Greens Creek
portal), plots from the Sitka road system ( 242, 243, 239, 244, 241),
Amalga Trail area ( plot 111), and on the edge of threshold for
Hypogymnia plot 245 ( Sitka road system) and plot 508 ( Endicott River)
(Figure XVIII-6); Lobore plot 86 ( Misty Fiords) and Berners Bay (plot
111)(Figure XVIII-8); Plagla plots 1000, 1001, 1002, 1003, and 1004
(Juneau Mt Roberts); 511a, 511b (Greens Creek), and plot 510 (
Coronation Island) is on the edge of threshold (Figure XVIII-10).

XVII. SUMMARY OF K PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XVII-1. Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XVII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XVII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the K ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

K ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1255.68	65.1090	1074.9084	1436.4516

1989	Wilderness	1511.59	73.2470	1323.3010	1699.8760

1990	Non-Wilderness	1270.42	92.2713	1080.7533	1460.0862

1990	Wilderness	1171.00	131.7895	848.5190	1493.4734

1991	Non-Wilderness	1062.9554	21.8562	1017.0372	1108.8737

1991	Wilderness	1176.68	47.3177	1045.3063	1308.0564

1992	Non-Wilderness	1087.78	53.8311	960.4870	1215.0678

2003	Wilderness	1414.02	315.6833	2597.1204	5425.1537

2004	Wilderness	1278.47	216.0594	831.5146	1725.4203

2005	Non-Wilderness	2033.56	256.7456	1373.5769	2693.5481

2005	Wilderness	1683.25	173.8661	1289.9370	2076.5620



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.9586, df = 8, p-value = 0.3658

There is no evidence of a difference in K ppm content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3658). 
Plots with repeated samples for K in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the K content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XVII-3, XVII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XVII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of K ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XVII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XVII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the K ppm content of Hypogymnia species per
year.

K ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1592.00	234.0000	1381.2520	4565.2520

1989	Wilderness	2494.68	181.2406	1991.4787	2997.8879

1990	Non-Wilderness	2844.27	211.9626	2398.9549	3289.5889

1990	Wilderness	2004.57	206.6696	1498.8691	2510.2738

2003	Wilderness	1796.55	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	1867.89	73.4462	1679.0935	2056.6926

2005	Non-Wilderness	2773.52	507.6070	589.4602	4957.5732

2005	Wilderness	2566.66	125.3818	2277.5301	2855.7922



No t-tests were performed on these data due to lack of repeat samples of
Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in K content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVII-5,
XVII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XVII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of K ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XVII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XVII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the K ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

K ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	5585.83	499.2121	3997.1175	7174.5491

1989	Wilderness	6591.09	289.6130	5786.9990	7395.1880

1990	Non-Wilderness	6882.89	258.5972	6319.4562	7446.3258

1990	Wilderness	6804.17	315.5482	5993.0241	7615.3093

2004	Wilderness	5348.35	403.0401	4362.1477	6334.5547

2005	Non-Wilderness	6039.78	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	7313.54	415.7546	5990.4207	8636.6543



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 0.2312, df = 4, p-value = 0.8285

There is no evidence of a difference in K ppm content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8285).  This analysis
was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for K in Lobaria
oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof (33) and
Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the K content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVII-7,
XVII-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XVII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of K ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XVII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Platismatia glauca

Table XVII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the K ppm content of Platismatia glauca per
year.

K ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	1701.63	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	1847.07	98.5653	1624.1006	2070.0410

2005	Non-Wilderness	2937.66	283.6815	2295.9287	3579.3930

2005	Wilderness	2246.19	93.7031	2024.6150	2467.7600



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for K are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in K content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVII-9, XVII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XVII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of K ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XVII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of K ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year.  

Conclusions: for Potassium (K) and all lichen species

Lichens enhanced in K from seashore environments range between 5000 to
9500 ppm from various lichen species worldwide (USDA 1999).  Potassium
constitutes about 1.10% by weight of the dissolved salts in seawater. 
From the Tongass, K threshold for Lobaria oregana (8001.57 ppm) is
within the enhanced range, while the other lichen species analyzed are
below the enhanced range.  Compared to the Pacific Northwest region,
Tongass lichens are at or above background for K (USDA 1999).

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background K in the Pacific Northwest for Alesar is 1500 ppm while the
Tongass threshold is 2413.25 ppm.  Although not considered high enough
to be K enhanced, it is suggestive that the hyper maritime environment
of the Tongass does universally influence the K in lichens.  However,
there are some places that have above threshold that may not be
associated with just seaside enhanced K such as the downtown Juneau area
plot 1000 (175 above town).  Elevated levels may be due to the wood
smoke and other combustion occurring in the downtown area.  Tebenkof
plot 33 is very high in K, nearly 6000 ppm, which is within the range of
what is considered seaside enhanced (USDA 1999).  Other Alesar collected
from beach plots are not above threshold for K, so it is unclear as to
why Tebenkof is the only elevated beach plot.  More sampling is
recommended.

Hypogymnia 

Background K in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest is between 2400
and 4000 ppm (USDA 1999).  The Tongass threshold for K (3284.34 ppm) is
within background for the Pacific Northwest.  Plots above threshold for
K include several along the Sitka road system and near the pulp mill
from the 1990’s (plots 242, 243, 239, 244, and 241).  Potassium may be
elevated due to wood stove pollution, proximity to industry, or the
seashore environment close to the road system of Sitka.  Plot 111 from
Amalga Trail in Juneau is elevated in K, and is unexplained at this
time.  Plot 511b near the Greens Creek mine is elevated in K and could
be attributed to industrial or burning activities in the area.  Plot 508
from Endicott River is just at threshold, and could be part of the
natural variation in K since it is miles inland from saltwater.

Lobaria oregana

Background K in the Pacific Northwest is 7000 ppm for Lobore (USDA
1999).  Tongass threshold is slightly above this at 8001.57ppm, and is
within what is considered seaside enhanced Lobore from other literature
(USDA 1999).  Two plots were near threshold in Lobore, (86 from Misty
Fiords at Hughs Lake, and 111 from Amalga Trail), and could be part of
the natural variation rather than enhanced from human use (Figure
XVIII-8).  

Platismatia glauca

Background K in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is almost equal to the
threshold for K on the Tongass (2500 ppm and 2523.88 ppm respectively). 
Potassium pollution from woodstoves and other combustion in downtown
Juneau may be the cause for elevated levels from all five plots on Mt
Roberts.  The plot closest to sea level (plot 1000) has the highest mean
levels of K in Plagla (over 4500 ppm) , and levels at the four higher
elevation plots have similar but lower mean K (Figure XVIII-10).  Plots
near the Greens Creek portal and upstream from the portal (plots 511a
and 511b) also are elevated in K, which may be attributed to industrial
sources at the mine.  Plot 510 from Coronation is just at threshold and
may be due to seaside environment or part of the natural variation. 

	

. 

XVIII. Summary of results for Lithium (Li) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Lithium is a soft alkali metal.  In nature, it does not occur in pure
element form due to its high reactivity.  Lithium forms a minor part of
igneous rocks, with the largest concentrations in granite.  It also
occurs in trace amounts in seawater.  Lithium compounds are used for the
manufacturing of lubricating grease compounded with petroleum and other
lubricating oils (Kamienski et al 2004).   Lithium minerals are also
used in glass and ceramic industries.  Lithium chloride and fluoride
compounds are used in welding and brazing.  

Lithium is analyzed in lichens for the first time on the Tongass.
Instrumental readings were refined between 2004 and 2005 at the
laboratory.  Detectable level was lowered in 2005 to .100 ppm.  In 2004,
detectable level was at .400 ppm.  All results for Alesar are below the
lowest detectable limit (see Figure XVIII-4).  Threshold for Li are
established from the 2004 and 2005 samples for Hypogymnia (.71 ppm),
Lobaria oregana (.59 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (.60 ppm).  

Above threshold for Li are the following: Hypogymnia (plot 62 from
Russell Fiords) and just on the edge of threshold (plot 512 from Greens
Creek tailings pile) (Figure XVIII-6); Lobore plot 62 from Russell Fiord
(Figure XVIII-8); and Plagla plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile), 62
(Russell Fiord) and on the edge of threshold for 511b (Greens Creek
portal) (Figure XVIII-10). 

XVIII. SUMMARY OF Li PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XVIII-1. Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XVIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XVIII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Li ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Li ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.40	0.0000	0.4000	0.4000

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.10	0.0000	0.1000	0.1000

2005	Wilderness	0.10	0.0000	0.1000	0.1000



No t-tests were performed due to the levels of Li in Alesar being below
instrumental detection limits.

Figure XVIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Li ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XVIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XVIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Li ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Li ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.40	0.0000	0.4000	0.4000

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.61	0.1421	0.0004	1.2221

2005	Wilderness	0.22	0.0576	0.0835	0.3494



No t-test was performed due to the lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Li content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVIII-5,
XVIII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XVIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Li ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XVIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XVIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Li ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Li ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.40	0.0029	0.3959	0.4098

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.66	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.1315	0.0315	0.0313	0.2317



No t-test was performed due to the lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Li content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVIII-5, XVIII-6 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XVIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Li ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XVIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XVIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Li ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Li ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.40	0.0041	0.3948	0.4134

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.40	0.0667	0.2492	0.5511

2005	Wilderness	0.26	0.0622	0.1095	0.4038



No t-test was performed due to the lack of repeatsamples.

Relationships are not strong in Li content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XVIII-5, XVIII-6 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XVIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Li ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XVIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Li ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Lithium (Li) and all lichen species

Levels for Li are below detectable limits in Alesar, and therefore this
lichen is not a good Li indicator.  Few plots are elevated in Li.  Those
elevated are near industry or from plots that have strong geological
influence as the likely source.  Background level for Li from the
Pacific Nortwhest or worldwide is available.

Hypogymnia

Plot 62 from Harlequin Lake is elevated above the Li threshold
established for the Tongass (Figure XVIII-6).  This plot is also high in
other elements, possibly due to the windblown dusts and exposed location
of this area to the glaciated terrain around Russell Fiords.  Plot 512
near Greens Creek tailings pile is just at threshold for Li, and could
be part of the natural variation or due to the proximity to industrial
sources of the mine. 

Lobaria oregana

Plot 62 from Russell Fiord is the only plot elevated above threshold for
Li (Figure XVIII-8).  This may be due to the sources indicated above
under Hypogymnia. 

Platismatia glauca

Plots 512 (Greens Creek tailings) is elevated above threshold, while
plot 511b (portal) is just at threshold level (Figure XVIII-10).  Both
plots may be elevated due to the mining industry and exposed rock and
road dust in the area.  Plot 62 from Russell Fiords is elevated and most
likely due to natural sources (see above Hypogymnia).

XVIII. Summary of results for Magnesium (Mg) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Magnesium is an alkaline earth metal and is abundant on earth. 
Compounds are in the earth’s crust and seawater.  Like calcium, Mg
levels in lichens tend to be enriched near ocean environments (USDA
1999).  Ultra-mafic rocks and soils are higher in Mg than other rocks
(Kabata-Pendias and Pendias 1984). Magnesium is also an essential
mineral to human health.  

Provisional threshold for Mg in lichens from the Tongass are the
following: Alectoria sarmentosa (740.83 ppm), Hypogymnia (2127.70 ppm),
Lobaria oregana (735.79 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (1717.08 ppm). 

Plot means above threshold Mg are the following: Alesar plot 516 (South
POW) and 510 (Warren Island) and on the edge of threshold plot 32 from
Tebenkof (Figure XIX-4); Hypogymnia plots 513 (Coronation Island), and
246 (Sitka road system, and on the edge for plot 509 (Warren Island)
(Figure XIX-6); Lobore plots 62 (Russell Fiords) and 246 (Sitka road
system)(Figure XIX-8); Plagla plot 510 from Warren Island (Figure
XIX-10). 

XIX. SUMMARY OF Mg PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XIX-1. Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XIX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XIX-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mg ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Mg ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	201.49	27.3259	125.6211	277.3589

1989	Wilderness	416.41	85.9430	195.4821	637.3290

1990	Non-Wilderness	322.90	28.6000	264.1091	381.6855

1990	Wilderness	310.33	32.3227	231.2434	389.4251

1991	Non-Wilderness	337.5974	32.7559	268.7798	406.4149

1991	Wilderness	458.77	46.2202	330.4383	587.0939

1992	Non-Wilderness	351.58	26.5861	288.7141	414.4465

2003	Wilderness	277.54	60.6483	493.0685	1048.1518

2004	Wilderness	384.78	24.7150	333.6580	435.9117

2005	Non-Wilderness	364.65	17.6155	319.3713	409.9354

2005	Wilderness	558.30	86.7444	362.0721	754.5309



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = 0.9446, df = 8, p-value = 0.3725

There is no evidence of a difference in Mg ppm content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3725). 
Plots with repeated samples for Mg in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Mg content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XIX-3, XIX-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XIX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mg ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XIX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XIX-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mg ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Mg ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	534.50	299.5000	3271.0080	4340.0080

1989	Wilderness	1101.33	126.8623	749.1070	1453.5597

1990	Non-Wilderness	1199.58	120.6124	946.1817	1452.9762

1990	Wilderness	1028.44	121.1508	731.9928	1324.8834

2003	Wilderness	788.53	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	1160.34	143.6093	791.1828	1529.5017

2005	Non-Wilderness	1412.92	157.5674	734.9587	2090.8747

2005	Wilderness	1554.76	165.1665	1173.8865	1935.6357



No t-tests were performed due to lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Mg content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIX-5,
XIX-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mg ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XIX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year.  



Lobaria oregana

Table XIX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mg ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Mg ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	399.92	21.1915	332.4758	467.3576

1989	Wilderness	500.10	51.8422	356.1631	644.0369

1990	Non-Wilderness	562.60	36.7034	482.6328	642.5723

1990	Wilderness	447.67	22.7190	389.2708	506.0731

2004	Wilderness	504.17	55.9632	367.2364	641.1105

2005	Non-Wilderness	864.42	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	534.6888	51.7891	369.8729	699.5047



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.2692, df = 4, p-value = 0.8011

There is no evidence of a difference in Mg ppm content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8011).  This
analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Mg in
Lobaria oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof
(33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Mg content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIX-7,
XIX-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XIX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mg ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XIX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XIX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mg ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Mg ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	631.63	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	821.80	71.2282	660.6702	982.9288

2005	Non-Wilderness	960.25	112.0473	706.7770	1213.7144

2005	Wilderness	1147.34	155.5752	779.4636	1515.2176



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The values for Mg are baseline
in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Mg content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XIX-9, XIX-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XIX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mg ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XIX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mg ppm

in Platismatia glauca per year.

Conclusions: for Magnesium (Mg) and all lichen species

Seashore enhanced lichens have Mg between 1000 ppm and 12,000 ppm for
undefined lichen species (USDA 1999), suggesting that 1000 ppm is the
general cutoff between background and enhanced levels of this element
(Neibor and Richardson (1981).  Hypogymnia and Platismatia glauca were
above 1000 ppm for Mg threshold, suggesting that the Tongass may be
universally enhanced in Mg due to the maritime influence.  Elevated
levels of Mg on the Tongass are apparently part of the natural variation
of this element in lichens. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

The background for Mg in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest is 250 ppm,
and the Tongass threshold is well above this at 740.83 ppm (USDA 1999). 
This suggests that Alesar is also regionally enhanced with Mg on the
Tongass due to the hypermaritime environment.  South Prince of Wales
wilderness plot 516 near the shoreline is elevated above threshold (over
1000 ppm) for Mg, and could be attributed to the close proximity to the
ocean (Figure XIX-4).  Similarly, Warren Island plot 510 is located on
the beachfringe at Warren Cove, and could be elevated due to the
saltwater influence.  Plot 32 from Tebenkof Bay is also near saltwater
and is just at Mg threshold, and can be attributed to the natural
variation of saltwater influence. 

Hypogymnia

Background for Hypogymnia in the Pacific Northwest is between 500 and
800 ppm (USDA 1999).  Threshold for Mg in Hypogymnia is elevated at
2127.70 ppm compared to the Pacific Northwest and is within the range
indicating seashore enhancement (USDA 1999).  Plot 513 from Coronation
Island at Egg Harbor is a forested beach area that is elevated in Mg
(over 2000 ppm); most likely due to the ocean influence (Figure XIX-6). 
Plot 246 from the Sitka road system may be enhanced as it is located on
the road along the shoreline.  This plot was elevated in many other
elements attributed to the proximity to industry and automobile exhaust.
 Plot 509 from Warren Island is just under threshold for Mg, and higher
levels could be a part of the natural variation of Mg in this seaside
habitat.

Lobaria oregana

Background for Lobore in the Pacific Northwest is 450 ppm, and Tongass
threshold is nearly double at 735 ppm (USDA 1999).  Elevated Mg above
provisional threshold may indicate the enhancement of lichens in this
region due to the hypermaritime environment.  Plot 246 from the Sitka
road system is elevated in Mg for Hypogymnia and Lobore, possibly for
the same reasons.  Elevated Mg at plot 62 from the Harlequin Lake may be
due to the nearby road and associated windblown soils and glacial dusts.
 

Platismatia glauca

Background for Mg in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is 500 ppm (USDA
1999), and the Tongass threshold is nearly triple this level at 1717.08
ppm.  Plot 510 from Warren Island is elevated in both Plagla and Alesar
(Figures XIX-8 and 10 respectively).  This beach forest plot may be
exposed to seashore spray.  

 

XX. Summary of results for Manganese (Mn) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Manganese (Mn) is a naturally occurring substance that does not occur as
a pure metal in the environement.  Instead it occurs combined with other
chemicals such as oxygyn, sulfur and chlorine (USPHS 1992).  Rocks
containing high levels of manganese compounds are mined and used to make
manganese metal.  It is mixed with iron to make various types of steel. 
It may be present in abraded dust from automobile engines (USDA 1999). 
Some manganese compounds are used in the production of batteries,
ceramics, pesticides, fertilizers and dietary supplements.  It is also
released into the air when fossil fuels are burned (USPHS 1992). 

Tongass thresholds for Mn in lichens are the following: Alectoria
sarmentosa (188.24 ppm), Hypogymnia (860.85 ppm), Lobaria oregana
(168.00 ppm), and Platismatia glauca (483.70 ppm). 

Locations with mean Mn above threshold are the following: Alesar plot 29
from Petersburg Lake, plot 111 from Amalga Trail, and on the edge of
threshold plot 116 from Petersburg Lake; Hypogymnia plot 189 from
Kootznoowoo and on the edge of threshold plot 190 from Kootznoowoo;
Lobore plots 37 and 178 from Cape Fanshaw are on the edge of threshold;
Plagla plot 31 from the Stikine River. 

XX. SUMMARY OF Mn PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XX-1. Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XX-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mn ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Mn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	95.34	8.0985	72.8550	117.8250

1989	Wilderness	142.28	32.4231	58.9316	225.6239

1990	Non-Wilderness	54.44	11.3047	31.2013	77.6755

1990	Wilderness	89.00	23.6286	31.1840	146.8179

1991	Non-Wilderness	62.2600	8.9156	43.5290	80.9910

1991	Wilderness	98.32	18.8259	46.0557	150.5939

1992	Non-Wilderness	Mn	49.23	14.8371	14.1507

2003	Wilderness	83.84	0.4025	78.7306	88.9591

2004	Wilderness	64.91	10.8394	42.4861	87.3323

2005	Non-Wilderness	93.57	19.2022	44.2128	142.9343

2005	Wilderness	79.77	16.7386	41.9016	117.6321



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.9515, df = 8, p-value = 0.3692

There is no evidence of a difference in Mn content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.3692). 
Plots with repeated samples for Mn in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Mn content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XX-3,
XX-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mn ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XX-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mn ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Mn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	287.00	169.0000	1860.3490	2434.3490

1989	Wilderness	284.58	56.9713	126.4058	442.7609

1990	Non-Wilderness	147.90	36.2956	71.6494	224.1576

1990	Wilderness	242.52	56.3119	104.7337	380.3140

2003	Wilderness	318.23	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	381.90	62.5739	221.0461	542.7489

2005	Non-Wilderness	173.83	38.5061	8.1562	339.5131

2005	Wilderness	432.29	102.9860	194.8039	669.7764



No t-tests were performed due to lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Mn content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XX-5, XX-6
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mn ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year.  



Lobaria oregana

Table XX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mn ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Mn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	129.42	22.5883	57.5308	201.3026

1989	Wilderness	58.81	12.0128	25.4606	92.1661

1990	Non-Wilderness	43.58	8.8066	24.3890	62.7648

1990	Wilderness	51.84	9.9798	26.1863	77.4942

2004	Wilderness	82.33	13.2018	50.0224	114.6297

2005	Non-Wilderness	39.24	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	71.0396	14.6810	24.3182	117.7611



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.9289, df = 4, p-value = 0.126

There is no evidence of a difference in Mn content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1260). ).  This
analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Mn in
Lobaria oregana, Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof
(33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Mn content in Lobore after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XX-7, XX-8
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mn ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mn ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Mn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	287.02	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	195.17	49.4364	83.3405	307.0063

2005	Non-Wilderness	155.24	21.9739	105.5308	204.9476

2005	Wilderness	148.13	51.7702	25.7136	270.5479



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Mn are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Mn content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XX-9, XX-10 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mn ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mn ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

. 

Conclusions: for Manganese (Mn) and all lichen species

Seashore enhancement of Mn in undefined lichen species ranges from 300
to 350 ppm (USDA 1999).  Industrial enhanced Mn levels ranges between
350 to 5000 ppm (USDA 1999).  On the Tongass, Plagla and Hypogymnia
indicate some seashore enhancement within the threshold levels, while
Alesar and Lobore are less than the lower range for seashore enhanced. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background Mn in the Pacific Northwest is lower than the threshold for
the Tongass (80 ppm and 188.24 ppm respectively).  Higher overall Mn on
the Tongass may be due to the hypermaritime environment.  Plot 29 from a
muskeg on the southeast side of Petersburg Lake is not near any
pollution source, other than an occasional float plane visit to the
lake.  Therefore elevated levels must be part of the natural variation
in Mn for Alesar.  Plot 111 from the Amalga trail is not near pollution
source; therefore elevated levels can be attributed to a crustal source.


Hypogymnia

Threshold of Mn in Hypogymnia on the Tongass is many times higher than
the background in the Pacific Northwest, indicating a seashore and
crustal source of this element (860.85 ppm and 50 to 75 ppm
respectively) (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold for Mn is at the lower
range of what is considered urban or industrially enhanced levels of Mn
in lichens (USDA 1999). Since none of the plots near industrial areas of
southeast Alaska are elevated with Mn, it is presumed that this is also
background for the region for Mn and Hypogymnia.  Plots 189 and 190 from
Kootznoowoo are elevated above and just at Mn threshold, probably
explained by natural sources (Figure XX-6). 

Lobaria oregana

Background level for Mn in Lobore from the Pacific Northwest is much
lower that the threshold for the Tongass (60 ppm compared to 168 ppm)
(USDA 1999).  Again, Tongass lichens appear to be universally enhanced
with Mn due to seashore or crustal sources.  Two plots are on the edge
of threshold (37 and 178) from Cape Fanshaw probably due to natural
sources (Figure XX-8). 

Platismatia glauca

Background level for Mn in Plagla is lower than the Tongass threshold
(150 ppm compared to 483.70 ppm) (USDA 1999).  Plot 31 from the Stikine
River (south of Shakes Slough on the main river) is elevated in Mn, most
likely due to crustal sources from nearby glaciers and exposed rocks.

XXI. Summary of results for Molybdenum (Mo) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Molybdenum is a shiny, silvery white element that has a melting point of
4730 degrees F, which is 2000 degrees higher than the melting point of
steel.  The most important ore source of molybdenum is molybdenite, and
is mined in the US, Chile and China.  A minor amount also comes from
wulfenite, and also as a by-product of copper mining.  The two largest
uses of molybdenum are as an alloy in stainless steel (water
distribution systems to kitchen utensils) and in alloy-steels
(automobile parts and construction equipment).  Molybdenum is an element
necessary for plants and animals to survive. 

Provisional thresholds were established for Mo in lichens, but in this
case are based on the detection limit of the ICP machine.  Detection
limits were lower in 2004 (.24 ppm) and higher in 2005 (.54 ppm) due to
laboratory funtions.  Therefore all values of Mo in lichens were
compared the the higher threshold of .54 ppm for all lichen species. 

The two places where Mo is elevated above the detection limit of the ICP
machine are from Greens Creek portal (plot 511b) and the tailings pile
(plot 512) in Hypogymnia (Figure XXI-6).  

XXI. SUMMARY OF Mo PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXI-1. Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXI-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mo ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Mo ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.22	0.0000	0.2200	0.2200

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.54	0.0008	0.5388	0.5427

2005	Wilderness	0.54	0.0000	0.5400	0.5400



No t-tests or regression were performed on these data.  The mean values
for Mo are baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Figure XXI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mo ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mo ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Mo ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.24	0.0104	0.2168	0.2704

2005	Non-Wilderness	1.07	0.2828	0.1433	2.2907

2005	Wilderness	0.54	0.0000	0.5400	0.5400



No t-tests or regression were performed on these data.  The mean values
for Mo are baseline in Hypogymnia.

Figure XXI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mo ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mo ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Mo ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.23	0.0081	0.2097	0.2494

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.54	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.5400	0.0000	0.5400	0.5400



No t-tests or regression were performed on these data.  The mean values
for Mo are baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Figure XXI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mo ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Mo ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Mo ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.28	0.0215	0.2339	0.3310

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.79	0.1801	0.3858	1.2006

2005	Wilderness	0.54	0.0000	0.5400	0.5400



No t-tests or regression were performed on these data.  The mean values
for Mo are baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Figure XXI-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Mo ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXI-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Mo ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 



 Conclusions: for Molybdenum (Mo) and all lichen species

Thresholds of Mo in Alectoria sarmentosa, Lobaria oregana and
Platismatia glauca are based on the ICP analysis detection limits. 
There are no background data for Mo in lichens from the Pacific
Northwest (USDA 1999).  Therefore, it is difficult to assume that the Mo
levels at Greens Creek are above what is considered background for
lichens from other regions.  It is presumed that enhancement of Mo comes
from exposed crustal sources in this area. 

. 



XVII. Summary of results for Sodium (Na) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Sodium is the most abundant alkali metal on earth and quickly iodizes in
the air.  Therefore, it is never found in its pure element in nature. 
It is present in great quantities in the earth’s oceans as sodium
chloride.  It is also a component to many minerals and is an essential
element for animal life. 

Provisional threshold for Na are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(893.16 ppm), Hypogymnia (929.13 ppm), Lobaria oregana (394.30 ppm), and
Platismatia glauca (693.21 ppm). 

Locations with Na levels above Tongass thresholds include: Alesar plots
142 and 143 (Whitestone Harbor area-Chichagof Island), and plots 99 and
100 (West Chichagof wilderness) (Figure XXII-4); Hypogymnia plot 79 from
Kell Bay, Kuiu Island (Figure XXII-6), Lobore plots 79 (Kell Bay) and
246 (Sitka road system) (Figure XXII-8); and Plagla plot 510 from Warren
Island wilderness (Figure XXII-10). 

XXII. SUMMARY OF Na PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXII-1. Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Na ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Na ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	43.61	11.0530	12.9220	74.2980

1989	Wilderness	94.19	39.4578	7.2406	195.6184

1990	Non-Wilderness	157.51	29.1796	97.5313	217.4903

1990	Wilderness	87.57	53.8385	44.1692	219.3068

1991	Non-Wilderness	373.3452	211.0759	70.1089	816.7992

1991	Wilderness	217.74	51.5771	74.5424	360.9444

1992	Non-Wilderness	150.68	31.1323	77.0637	224.2959

2003	Wilderness	41.03	0.8856	29.7732	52.2780

2004	Wilderness	274.96	71.8197	126.3855	423.5261

2005	Non-Wilderness	63.52	22.2502	6.3219	120.7139

2005	Wilderness	246.22	65.1305	98.8841	393.5551



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.244, df = 8, p-value = 0.8134

There is no evidence of a difference in Na content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8134). 
Plots with repeated samples for Na in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Na content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XXII-3, XXII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XXII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Na ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Na ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Na ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	80.50	57.5000	650.1068	811.1068

1989	Wilderness	124.68	31.5730	37.0226	212.3440

1990	Non-Wilderness	317.78	81.4198	146.7241	488.8373

1990	Wilderness	141.86	75.2562	42.2883	326.0025

2003	Wilderness	95.31	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	163.16	35.4967	71.9172	254.4116

2005	Non-Wilderness	185.51	37.7393	23.1328	347.8906

2005	Wilderness	278.23	48.8804	165.5076	390.9444



No t-tests were performed due to the lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Na content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXII-5,
XXII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Na ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Lobaria oregana

Table XXII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Na ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Na ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	67.75	9.9083	36.2175	99.2825

1989	Wilderness	101.25	41.1489	NA	215.5010

1990	Non-Wilderness	186.03	51.5276	73.7568	298.2945

1990	Wilderness	42.22	4.3542	31.0257	53.4115

2004	Wilderness	113.72	20.5302	63.4887	163.9599

2005	Non-Wilderness	227.55	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	156.6590	62.7977	NA	356.5093



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -2.5951, df = 4, p-value = 0.0604

There is suggestive evidence of a difference in Na content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0604).  ). 
This analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Na
in Lobaria oregana:  Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake),
Tebenkof (33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88).  This is most likely due to the
Misty Fiords plots 86  and 88 having seemingly higher Na content in
Lobore for the second monitoring period than the first (44 and 124 ppm
for plot 86, and 44 and 85 ppm for plot 88). )

Relationships are not strong in the Na content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXII-7,
XXII-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results

Figure XXII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Na ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Na ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Na ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	84.24	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	109.80	27.2354	48.1855	171.4071

2005	Non-Wilderness	116.53	15.7153	80.9790	152.0797

2005	Wilderness	278.81	101.5439	38.6939	518.9202



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Na are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Na content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXII-9, XXII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Na ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Na ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Sodium (Na) and all lichen species

Sodium, like calcium and magnesium, has demonstrated to be enhanced in
lichens near seashores (USDA 1999).  However, all Tongass thresholds are
below the lower end of the enhanced range of sodium due to seashore
influences (< 1000 ppm) (USDA 1999).  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background level for Na in the Pacific Northwest for Alesar is 75 ppm
and the Tongass threshold is 893.16 ppm (USDA 1999).  The difference can
be attributed to the hypermaritime environment of the Tongass, but
threshold levels are still below what is considered seashore enhanced
(USDA 1999).  This may be due to the high rainfall in the region.  Some
individual plots with Alesar are well within the enhanced range for
sodium.  Whitestone area on Chichagof Island has sodium levels above
1000 ppm and as high as 4000 ppm (Figure XXII-4).  This may be part of
the natural variation of Na on the Tongass, or may be due to some other
unknown environmental factors of the area.  Plots 99 and 100 from West
Chichagof are on an island exposed to the open Pacific and this could
explain the higher than threshold Na levels. 

Hypogymnia

Plot 79 from Kell Bay (Kuiu Island) is exposed to Chatham Straits which
may contribute to higher Na levels for this lichen.  Elevated Na may
also be part of the natural variation as mean Na is just above threshold
(Figure XXII-6)

Lobaria oregana

Background Na in Lobore for the Pacific Northwest is well below the
Tongass threshold for Na (150 ppm and 394.30 ppm respectively) (USDA
1999).  There may be a slight change in Na levels from the pre-2000
monitoring period to the post-2000 monitoring period, but the change is
barely significant (p-value = 0.0604).  This is most likely from the two
plots from Misty Fiords that show higher Na levels from the second
monitoring period.  Wilderness areas have not contained known
anthropogenic sources of Na and are more likely due to natural
variation.  Sodium levels in the plot 246 from the Sitka road system
sampled in the early 1990’s may be elevated above threshold due to the
pulp mill influence and the sodium sulfide that is emitted in the pulp
bleaching process.  

Platismatia glauca

Background for Na in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is 90 ppm (USDA
1999).  Threshold levels for Na are well above this at 693.21ppm,
indicating Na is enhanced in the region due to the hyper maritime
environment.  Warren Island plot 510 is at the beachfringe of Warren
Cove.  This island is very exposed to the open Pacific.  However, it is
interesting that Na levels were not equally as high on Coronation Island
beach plots as this island is also exposed to the open Pacific.  Amount
of precipitation between both islands may factor into this variation. 

. 

XXIII. Summary of results for Nickle (Ni) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Nickel is a metal that contains properties that make it very desirable
for combining with other metals to make alloys.  Some metals used with
nickel are iron, copper, chromium and zinc.  Most nickel is used to make
stainless steel, but it is also used in making metal coins, jewelry and
in other industries.  Nickel combined with other elements occurs
naturally in the earth’s crust, in all soils, and is also emitted from
volcanoes (USPHS 1995).  Nickle is also found in ocean waters as lumps
of minerals on the ocean floor known as sea floor nodules dissolve into
the water (Rona 2003).  It is also released into the air through mining,
oil-burning power plants, coal burning power plants, and trash
incinerators.  

Provisional thresholds for Ni are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa
(.96 ppm), Hypogymnia (4.26 ppm), Lobaria oregana (1.65 ppm), and
Platismatia glauca (2.65 ppm).

Plots with lichens above threshold for Ni include: Alesar plots 107,
108, and 240 ( Sitka road system), plot 29 ( Petersburg Creek), and plot
1000 ( Juneau Mt Roberts 175 ft )(Figure XXIII-4); Hypogymnia plots 108,
236, 239, 243, 244 and 245 ( Sitka road system), and 512 (Greens Creek
tailings pile)(XXIII-6); Lobore  plot 62 ( Russell Fiord Harlequin Lake)
(Figure XXIII-8); Plagla plots 511a, 511b and 512 (Greens Creek), plots
1000 and 1001 (Mt Roberts) and plot 62 (Russell Fiords)(Figure
XXIII-10). 

XXIII. SUMMARY OF Ni PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXIII-1. Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXIII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ni ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ni ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.67	0.0526	0.5213	0.8131

1989	Wilderness	0.82	0.1291	0.4920	1.1559

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.67	0.0807	0.5013	0.8330

1990	Wilderness	0.52	0.0255	0.4618	0.5863

1991	Non-Wilderness	0.2682	0.0212	0.2237	0.3127

1991	Wilderness	0.27	0.0195	0.2115	0.3201

1992	Non-Wilderness	0.35	0.0361	0.2643	0.4349

2003	Wilderness	0.44	0.0000	0.4400	0.4400

2004	Wilderness	0.45	0.0095	0.4311	0.4705

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.75	0.0986	0.5004	1.0072

2005	Wilderness	0.64	0.0000	0.6400	0.6400



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.2513, df = 8, p-value = 0.2462

There is no evidence of a difference in Ni content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2462). 
Plots with repeated samples for Ni in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Ni content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XXIII-3, XXIII-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XXIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ni ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ni ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Ni ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1.00	0.4450	4.6593	6.6493

1989	Wilderness	1.78	0.6156	0.0726	3.4910

1990	Non-Wilderness	3.42	0.6978	1.9523	4.8844

1990	Wilderness	0.96	0.2020	0.4672	1.4557

2003	Wilderness	0.44	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	0.62	0.0628	0.4591	0.7818

2005	Non-Wilderness	4.42	0.1727	3.6736	5.1598

2005	Wilderness	1.17	0.2816	0.5226	1.8214



No t-tests were performed due to lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in Ni content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIII-5,
XXIII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ni ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ni ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ni ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	0.60	0.0511	0.4417	0.7666

1989	Wilderness	0.71	0.1613	0.2597	1.1553

1990	Non-Wilderness	0.66	0.0597	0.5250	0.7854

1990	Wilderness	0.60	0.0694	0.4203	0.7771

2004	Wilderness	0.87	0.1459	0.5167	1.2305

2005	Non-Wilderness	2.27	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.7168	0.0768	0.4725	0.9610



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -2.0942, df = 4, p-value = 0.1043

There is no evidence of a difference in Ni content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.1043).  This analysis
was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Ni in Lobaria
oregana:  Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof (33)
and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Ni content in Lobore after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIII-7,
XXIII-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ni ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ni ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ni ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	0.46	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	1.14	0.2169	0.6531	1.6344

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.08	0.2923	2.4230	3.7454

2005	Wilderness	1.14	0.2565	0.5321	1.7451



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Ni are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ni content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIII-9, XXIII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ni ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ni ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Nickle (Ni) and all lichen species

Nickel enhanced lichens due to mine and smelter activities contain
between 10 and 300 ppm for undefined lichen species (USDA 1999). 
Lichens may also be enhanced near seashore habitats with levels ranging
from 10 to 120 ppm (USDA 1999).  Given the region’s active geologic
processes and hypermaritime environment, provisional threshold levels
are understandably above the background levels for Ni in the Pacific
Northwest.  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background levels for Ni in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest are at .60
ppm (USDA 1999).  This is slightly lower than the Tongass Ni threshold
of .96 ppm.  Plots with lichens elevated in Ni from the Sitka road
system (107, 108, and 240) may be further enhanced due to the proximity
to the pulp mill and vehicle and marine traffic near the ferry terminal
(Figure XXIII-4).  Lichens from plot 29 from the Petersburg Lake area is
elevated above threshold in Ni, which is unexplained at this time.  This
plot is also elevated in manganese, and may be due to the natural
variation of these elements in lichens from this wilderness.  Plot 1000
from Juneau’s Mt Roberts may be Ni enhanced due to the nearby
industrial area of Juneau and extinct gold mine, and the nearby cruise
ship docking area.  Nickel is present in stack gases from oil burning
and vehicle exhaust.  The other plots higher up the slope of Mt Roberts
are not elevated in Ni.  This helps explain that naturally occurring Ni
is not present in large quantities around this mountain, but rather is
emitted from the urban sources at lower elevations. 

Hypogymnia

Background level is higher for Ni in Hypogymnia than other lichens in
the Pacific Northwest because this genus is a better accumulator of
contaminants (1.5 to 4.0 ppm) (USDA 1999).  Tongass Ni threshold is 4.26
ppm.  Elevated above threshold for Ni include lichens from the Sitka
area around the pulp mill and ferry terminal (plots 108, 236, 239, 243,
and 244), and can be explained in part by the proximity to these
industrial areas (Figure XXIII-6).  These plots have not been
remonitored.  Plot 512 from Greens Creek tailings pile is elevated just
above threshold due to the exposed ore, but is not within the range of
being enhanced due to mining and smelter activities worldwide. 

Lobaria oregana

The background for Ni in Lobore from the Pacific Northwest is .60 ppm
(USDA 1999), and the Tongass threshold is higher at 1.65 ppm.  Plot 62
from Russell Fiords is elevated above threshold in Ni, possibly due to
the nearby airstrip or road (Figure XXIII-8).  Geology of the area may
also play a role in Ni enhancement in Russell Fiords.  

Platismatia glauca

Background Ni from the Pacific Northwest in Plagla is 2.0 ppm and
Tongass threshold is slightly higher at 2.65 ppm (USDA 1999).  All plots
from Greens Creek are elevated in Ni, which can be explained by the
proximity to the mining industry and exposed ore in the area and on the
roads (Figure XXIII-10).  Plots on Mt Roberts are elevated most likely
due to the proximity to the extinct mine, cruise ship docking area and
downtown Juneau automobile pollution.  Plot 1000 is 175 feet above sea
level.  Plot 1001 is at the 600 ft level.  The Alesar collected at the
1001 plot is not elevated in Ni, yet the Alesar is from the 175 ft level
(Plot 1000) (Figure XXIII-4).  Levels of Ni are apparently higher from
Plagla in plot 1000 than 1001(Figure XXIII-10) indicating a possible
gradient in exposure and absorption due to elevation and proximity to
pollution source.  More plots at closer intervals would help explain a
possible depositional pattern. 

XXIV. Summary of results for Phosphorus (P) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Phosphorus (P) occurs naturally in many phosphate minerals.  Due to its
high reactivity, phosphorus is never found as a free element in nature. 
The most important commercial use of phosphorus-based chemicals is the
production of fertilizers.  Phosphorus compounds are also widely used in
explosives, nerve agents, friction matches, fireworks, pesticides,
toothpaste, and detergents. Phosphorus is also emmitted in ash from wood
burning stoves.   Phosphorus is a component of DNA and RNA and is an
essential element for all living cells.  

Tongass thresholds for P are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (913.75
ppm), Hypogymnia (1597.23 ppm), Lobaria oregana (2532.49 ppm) and
Platismatia glauca (1115.00 ppm).

Plots with lichens elevated above threshold for P include the following:
Alesar plots 107 (Sitka road system) 113 (Berners Bay), 33 (Tebenkof
Bay) and 1002 (Mt Roberts 600 ft elevation) (Figure XXIV-4); Hypogymnia
plots 236, 241, and 243 (Sitka road system), and plot 111 (Amalga
trail-Juneau) (Figure XXIV-6); Lobore plot 32 (Tebenkof Bay) (Figure
XXIV-8), and Plagla plots 1000, 1001, 1002, and 1004 (Juneau Mt Roberts)
and 511b (Greens Creek portal area).  Just at threshold is plot 508 from
Endicott River wilderness (Figure XXIV-10).

XXIV. SUMMARY OF P PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXIV-1. Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXIV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXIV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the P ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

P ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	362.74	76.1446	151.3287	574.1513

1989	Wilderness	591.78	75.3888	397.9846	785.5710

1990	Non-Wilderness	347.73	54.0382	236.6527	458.8071

1990	Wilderness	310.38	78.9222	117.2687	503.4999

1991	Non-Wilderness	193.6281	8.3143	176.1603	211.0958

1991	Wilderness	201.61	7.6276	180.4274	222.7826

1992	Non-Wilderness	205.66	10.3293	181.2375	230.0873

2003	Wilderness	557.05	125.3892	1036.1663	2150.2746

2004	Wilderness	360.82	85.1815	184.6071	537.0299

2005	Non-Wilderness	663.69	125.3194	341.5496	985.8371

2005	Wilderness	408.23	60.3982	271.5982	544.8588



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -1.1626, df = 8, p-value = 0.2785

There is no evidence of a difference in P content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.2785). 
Plots with repeated samples for P in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the P content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XXIV-3, XXIV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XXIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of P ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXIV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the P ppm content of Hypogymnia species per
year.

P ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	612.50	196.5000	1884.2690	3109.2690

1989	Wilderness	1113.47	93.3430	854.3049	1372.6284

1990	Non-Wilderness	1128.13	115.4113	885.6615	1370.6017

1990	Wilderness	675.38	128.8464	360.1051	990.6568

2003	Wilderness	758.09	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	613.87	108.4177	335.1760	892.5690

2005	Non-Wilderness	931.34	176.3951	172.3731	1690.3069

2005	Wilderness	909.76	123.1564	625.7609	1193.7591



No t-tests were performed due to lack of repeat samples.

Relationships are not strong in P content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIV-5,
XXIV-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXIV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of P ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXIV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXIV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the P ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

P ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	1792.25	155.4934	1297.4005	2287.0995

1989	Wilderness	1778.58	279.1520	1003.5260	2553.6270

1990	Non-Wilderness	1811.46	90.0948	1615.1554	2007.7549

1990	Wilderness	1801.65	236.4482	1193.8434	2409.4621

2004	Wilderness	1246.71	118.4279	956.9247	1536.4898

2005	Non-Wilderness	1328.60	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	1902.3562	154.3054	1411.2875	2393.4250



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.4222, df = 4, p-value = 0.6946

There is no evidence of a difference in P content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.6946).  This analysis
was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for P in Lobaria
oregana:  Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof (33)
and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the P content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIV-7,
XXIV-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXIV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of P ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXIV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXIV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the P ppm content of Platismatia glauca per
year.

P ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	876.00	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	745.43	53.9139	623.4636	867.3868

2005	Non-Wilderness	1104.47	124.6367	822.5221	1386.4179

2005	Wilderness	889.42	71.8006	719.6347	1059.1978



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for P are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in P content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIV-9, XXIV-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results)

Figure XXIV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of P ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXIV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of P ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Phosphorus (P) and all lichen species

Phosphorus may be locally enhanced in lichens from areas that contain
native rock phosphates or in areas where P is used in industry (USDA
1999).  Phosphorus thresholds on the Tongass are generally higher than
background levels found in the Pacific Northwest, but are generally
within the background range determined by Neiboer and others (between
200 and 2000 ppm) (1978).  Enhanced levels for P are not given by
Neiboer and others (1978) nor Neiboer and Richardson (1981).  Levels of
P above the threshold established for each lichen species on the Tongass
may be due to natural geologic sources or local human activity such as
road dust and wood smoke.  There are no phosphate refineries in the
region.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Threshold of P in Alesar are above background levels from the Pacific
Northwest (913.75 ppm and 500 ppm respectively) (USDA 1999).  Tebenkof
plot 33 from 2004 is elevated above threshold and the reasons for this
are unknown (Figure XXIV-4).  Plot 32 from the 1990’s in Tebenkof is
just at threshold for P and may just be part of the natural variation. 
Elevated levels of P from lichens on the Sitka road system may be due to
the old pulp mill and associated roads (Plot 107).  The Berners Bay
lichens from plot 113 may be elevated due to past mining activities, or
natural variation.  Alesar from Plot 1002 (Mt Roberts 600 ft elevation)
is at threshold level.  However, elevated levels were found in one other
lichen species for the same plot (see below under Plagla).

Hypogymnia

Threshold of P (1597.23 ppm) for Hypogymnia on the Tongass is just above
the range of background levels reported from the Pacific Northwest
(between 900 and 1500 ppm) (USDA 1999).  Plots with elevated P in
Hypogymnia include several from the Sitka road system and pulp mill
area, most likely associated with these sources (plots 236, 241, and
243) (Figure XXIV-6).  These plots have not been revisited.  Hypogymnia
from Amalga Trail near Juneau (plot 111) is right at threshold and may
be part of the natural variation of P.  

Lobaria oregana

Threshold of P in Lobore is slightly higher than background P in the
Pacific Northwest (2532. 49 ppm and 2000 ppm respectively).  Plot 32
from Tebenkof Bay is elevated above threshold (Figure XXIV-8), as was
plot 33 from Tebenkof in Alesar in 2004(Figure XXIV-4).  Plot 32 was not
revisited.  Both plots are in the beach fringe and in wilderness. 
Therefore, the elevated levels may be part of the natural variation of
this region  

Platismatia glauca

Background from Pacific Northwest for P is just about equal to the
Tongass threshold for P (1100 ppm and 1115.00 ppm respectively).  The
lichens from some of the polluted areas on the Tongass show elevated
levels of P, even though other lichen species generally do not from the
same locations.  Plagla is a better accumulator than the other
biomonitoring species and therefore, elements are more readily detected.
 Plagla from Mt Roberts is particularly striking as all five plots show
elevated levels of P above threshold (Figure XXIV-10).  This may
indicate that wood smoke may be related to the P enhancement other than
natural background of the region.  Elevated levels associated with
Greens Creek at the portal (511b) may be a function of the explosives
used in the mining process over time.  Plagla from plot 508 at Endicott
wilderness may be due to the calcareous geology of the Chilkat Peninsula
and associated windblown soils 

 

XVIV. Summary of results for Lead (Pb) from all species on the Tongass
National Forest

Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in small amounts in the
earth’s crust.  Lead combines with other elements to make lead
compounds or lead salts.  Some of these substances can burn such as
organic lead compounds in some gasolines (USPHS 1999).  Lead was banned
from use in gasoline in 1996.  Lead is used in the production of
batteries, ammunition, sheet lead, solder, some brass and bronze
products, radiation shields, ultrasound machines, intravenous pumps,
fetal monitors, surgical equipment and ceramic glazes (USPHD 1999). 
Lead used by industry comes from mined ores or recycled scrap metal or
batteries.  

Lead is released into the environment from the burning of coal or oil,
industrial processes, and burning solid wastes.  If the particles are
small enough, airborne lead can travel thousands of miles.  Although
lead does occur naturally in the environment from windblown dusts and
volcanoes, most high lead levels found throughout the environment comes
from human activities.  Even though lead is banned in gasoline, lead
from past gasoline exhausts sticks to soil particles on roads for years
(USPHS 1999).  

Provisional Pb thresholds in lichens are the following: Alectoria
sarmentosa (5.00 ppm); Hypogymnia (10.13 ppm); Lobaria oregana (3.52
ppm); and Platismatia glauca (3.52 ppm).  

Lichens elevated in Pb on the Tongass are the following: Alesar plots
512 (Greens Creek tailings pile), 221 (Douglas Island) and 247 (Sitka
pulp mill area)(Figure XXV-4); Hypogymnia plots 239, 241, 242, 243, and
244 (Sitka pulp mill and road system) and 511b and 512 (Greens Creek
mine)(Figure XXV-6); Lobore plot 246 (Sitka pulp mill)(Figure XXV-8);
and Plagla plots 511a, 511b and 512 (Greens Creek mine)(Figure XXV-10). 


XXV. SUMMARY OF Pb PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXV-1. Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXV-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXV-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Pb ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Pb ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2.61	0.2909	1.8024	3.4176

1989	Wilderness	3.15	0.6994	1.3521	4.9479

1990	Non-Wilderness	4.90	2.0678	0.6526	9.1534

1990	Wilderness	3.59	0.7418	1.7698	5.4002

1991	Non-Wilderness	2.8615	0.4264	1.9658	3.7572

1991	Wilderness	1.89	0.0626	1.7122	2.0595

1992	Non-Wilderness	5.83	4.1444	3.9717	15.6282

2003	Wilderness	1.68	0.0000	1.6800	1.6800

2004	Wilderness	1.83	0.0669	1.6959	1.9728

2005	Non-Wilderness	25.90	22.1260	30.9809	82.7722

2005	Wilderness	3.52	0.0000	3.5200	3.5200



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.2358, df = 8, p-value = 0.8195

There is no evidence of a difference in Pb content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.8195). 
Plots with repeated samples for Pb in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Pb content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XXV-3, XXV-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XXV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Pb ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXV-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Pb ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Pb ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	5.50	2.5000	26.2655	37.2655

1989	Wilderness	3.70	0.3000	2.8671	4.5329

1990	Non-Wilderness	33.05	10.9320	10.0853	56.0200

1990	Wilderness	5.43	1.3087	2.2262	8.6309

2003	Wilderness	1.72	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	2.86	0.2110	2.3131	3.3980

2005	Non-Wilderness	303.60	150.2443	342.8472	950.0506

2005	Wilderness	3.52	0.0000	3.5200	3.5200



No t-tests were performed due to the lack of repeat samples

Relationships are not strong in Pb content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXV-5,
XXV-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXV-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Pb ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXV-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXV-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Pb ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Pb ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	2.42	0.1596	1.9088	2.9245

1989	Wilderness	1.76	0.1939	1.2216	2.2984

1990	Non-Wilderness	2.52	1.3759	-0.4785	5.5170

1990	Wilderness	1.70	0.2546	1.0434	2.3522

2004	Wilderness	1.82	0.1388	1.4792	2.1583

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.52	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	3.5200	0.0000	3.5200	3.5200



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -2.189, df = 4, p-value = 0.0938

There is suggestive evidence of a difference in Pb content in Lobaria
oregana from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.0938).  This
analysis was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Pb in
Lobaria oregana:  Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof
(33) and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Pb content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXV-7,
XXV-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXV-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Pb ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXV-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Platismatia glauca

Table XXV-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Pb ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Pb ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	1.68	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	1.86	0.1405	1.5452	2.1809

2005	Non-Wilderness	155.62	85.2947	37.3316	348.5685

2005	Wilderness	3.52	0.0000	3.5200	3.5200



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Pb are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Pb content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXV-9, XXV-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXV-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Pb ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXV-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Pb ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

 Conclusions: for Lead (Pb) and all lichen species

Lobaria oregana and Platismatia glauca were below the detection limits
of Pb for the ICP machine for 2005 analysis.  In 2004, detection levels
in the ICP machine were lower. The provisional thresholds established
for the Tongass used the higher 2005 detection level for Plagla and
Lobore (around 3.52 ppm).  The other lichen species (Alesar and
Hypogymnia) contain enough Pb to be detected by the ICP analysis. 
Thresholds are established from generally “pristine” areas. 
However, some of the wilderness areas on the Tongass contain Pb levels
above the ICP detection limit that raises the thresholds for some
lichens to a higher value.  Lichens can be enhanced with Pb in marine
areas (Davidson et al 1985) where many of the wilderness plots are near.
 Lead from roadways can also travel attached to soil particles for some
distance.  In Europe, long range atmospheric transport of Pb from
densely populated areas has resulted in regionally enhanced levels
(Rühling et al 1985).  Levels of Pb in lichens from areas enhanced due
to urban or industrial sources range between 100 and 12,000 ppm (USDA
1999).  A similar range exists for lichens near mining or smelter
activities worldwide (USDA 1999).  Most of the lichens sampled at Greens
Creek mine were above 100 ppm and are considered enhanced due to this
industry (see below). 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background for Pb in Alesar from the Pacific Northwest is equal to the
Pb threshold in Alesar for the Tongass (5.0 ppm) (USDA 1999).  Lichens
with enhanced Pb include the Alesar from the Greens Creek tailings pile
plot 512 (above 130 ppm) (Figure XXIV-4).  Even though Alesar is not as
good of accumulator as other species, Pb does accumulate in Alesar in
the Greens Creek mine area.  It is difficult to equate the amount of Pb
accumulated to the amount of Pb actually being emitted into the
environment due to this industry.  Plot 221 from Douglas Island also is
elevated above threshold but is not in the range due to mining or other
activates.  Elevated levels could be due to the proximity to unpaved
roads.  Similarly elevated in Pb, the Sitka plot 247 is near the road
system and the closed pulp mill, and has not been revisited.

Hypogymnia

Background Pb in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest range between 15
and 20 ppm (USDA 1999).  The Tongass threshold is within this range of
10 ppm.  Plots with Hypogymnia from the Sitka road system and closed
pulp mill display elevated levels above threshold (239, 241, 242, 243
and 244) (Figure XXIV-6).  Levels are just within what is considered
enhanced due to urban or industrial levels (above 100 ppm) (USDA 1999). 
Greens Creek Hypogymnia from plots 511b (portal) and 512 (tailings pile)
are both very elevated (above 400 ppm) and considered enhanced due to
the mining industry.

Lobaria oregana

Background Pb in Lobore from the Pacific Northwest is lower than the
Tongass threshold for Pb (1.75 ppm and 3.52 ppm).  However, as stated
above, the 2004 levels were lower as the detection limit in the ICP
machine had changed for the 2005 samples to a higher value, and so the
threshold may be slightly inflated.  Plot 246 from the Sitka road system
was the only plot with Lobore elevated in Pb (Figure XXIV-8).  

Platismatia glauca

Background Pb in Plagla from the Pacific Northwest is well above the
threshold established for the Tongass (25 ppm and 3.52 ppm
respectively).  Even though Pb may be elevated in lichens close to the
ocean (Davidson et al 1985) the Tongass Pb threshold does not display
regional enhancement due to the hypermaritime environment.  Greens Creek
is the only place Pb is elevated above threshold in Plagla (Figure
XXIV-10).  Levels are between 300 and 800 ppm, and are within
enhancement due to industry.  The highest Pb is in lichens at the mine
portal.  Lead appears to decrease rapidly from the portal as the levels
found in Plagla about 200 ft from the portal (plot 511a) are much
lower(from 800 ppm at 511b to 300 ppm at plot 511a) (Figure XXIV-10). 
It is not known how far from the mining activities Pb accumulates in
lichens

XVIV. Summary of results for Rubidium (Rb) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Rubidium is a soft, silvery-white metallic element of the alkali group
and is the second most electropositive and alkaline element.  It occurs
in the earth’s crust and in small amounts in seawater.  It occurs
abundantly but is so widespread that it is usually obtained through
lithium production (Barbalace 2007). 

Lichens were analyzed for rubidium during the second monitoring period. 
All lichens were below detection limit of the ICP machinery (below 53
ppm) and will not be covered further in this report.  Thereofre, the
provisional threshold for Rb is 53 ppm for all lichen species.

 

XXVII. Summary of results for Silicon (Si) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Silicon is one the of earth’s most common elements.  Silicon does not
occur naturally in element form, but rather combined with oxygyn to form
a compound called silica.  Silica occurs in a free form (ie in sand and
quartz) or combines with a variety of metallic oxides called silicates. 
Airborne silica dust particals vary in size, shape and abrasive
properties.  

Silicon was not analysed during the first monitoring period.  Threshold
levels for lichens on the Tongass are the following based on 2003 to
2005 data: Alectoria sarmentosa (132.75 ppm); Hypogymnia 563.82 ppm),
Lobaria oregana 681.18 ppm); and Platismatia glauca ( 635.83 ppm).  

Lichens from plots elevated in silicon are the following: Alesar plot
512 (Greens Creek) and 508 (Endicott River) (Figure XXVII-4); Hypogymnia
plots 512 (Greens Creek tailings pile) and 62 (Russell Fiords)(Figure
XXVII-6); Lobore plot 495 (Stikine River Flemer cabin)(XXVII-8); and
Plagla plot 31 (Stikine River)(XXVII-10). 

XXVII. SUMMARY OF Si PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXVII-1. Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXVII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXVII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Si ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Si ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	59.88	4.6889	50.1827	69.5822

2005	Non-Wilderness	91.17	24.4854	28.2296	154.1131

2005	Wilderness	64.13	13.1451	34.3891	93.8617



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Si are
baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in Si content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVII-3, XXVII-4 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXVII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Si ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXVII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXVII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Si ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Si ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	264.42	32.8639	179.9358	348.8947

2005	Non-Wilderness	537.33	97.8674	116.2390	958.4176

2005	Wilderness	309.10	46.4001	202.1028	416.1005



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Si are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Si content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVII-5,
XXVII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXVII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Si ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXVII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXVII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Si ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Si ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	332.41	96.8681	95.3837	569.4390

2005	Non-Wilderness	567.28	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	117.7676	60.9940	NA	311.8777



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Si are
baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Relationships are not strong in Si content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVII-5, XXVII-6 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXVII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Si ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXVII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXVII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Si ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Si ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	389.73	63.0716	247.0559	532.4114

2005	Non-Wilderness	524.88	22.3015	474.4295	575.3285

2005	Wilderness	352.75	58.0100	215.5789	489.9224



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Si are
baseline in Platismatia glauca

Relationships are not strong in Si content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVIII-9, XXVII-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXVII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Si ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXVII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Si ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Silicon (Si) and all lichen species

Background levels of Si are not available for lichens from the Pacific
Northwest.  Locations on the Tongass with elevated Si may be due to
windblown soils and dust from interior regions.  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Lichens from plot 508 from Endicott River are elevated in Si and is most
likely associated with windblown soils and dusts from the glaciers and
other geological features of the Chilkat Peninsula.  Plot 512 from
Greens Creek may be elevated due to the proximity to the tailings pile
that contains siliceous rocks.

Hypogymnia

Similar to Alesar above, Hypogymnia in plot 512 at Greens Creek must be
elevated due to the proximity to the open tailings pile.  Lichens from
plot 62 from Russell Fiords are probably influenced by the windblown
dusts from the Yukon, and from the nearby road and airstrip.

Lobaria oregana

The Stikine River plot 495 from Flemer cabin is most likely elevated in
Si due to windblown soils on the river from the interior.

Platismatia glauca

Stikine River plot 31 from the main river near the ADFG cabin is most
likely elevated due to the windblown soils and sands on the river. 

. 

XXVIII. Summary of results for Strontium (Sr) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Strontium is an alkaline earth metal that occurs naturally as a
non-radioactive element.  In nature, it is present in igneous rocks of
the earth’s crust and in seawater (ATSDR 2004).  The stable forms of
commercial interest are found in the minerals celestite and
strontianite.   It is also a minor component of other mineral deposits
such as in veins associated with limestone or dolomite, or in or near
sedimentary rocks associated with beds of gypsum, anhydrite, and rock
salt.  Strontium compounds are used in making ceramics and glass
products, pyrotechnics, paint pigments, fluorescent lights, and
medicines.

Strontium was not analyzed in lichens during the first monitoring
period.  Thresholds are established from the 2003 to 2005 data. 
Thresholds in lichens from the Tongass are the following: Alectoria
sarmentosa (33.56 ppm); Hypogymnia (61.26 ppm); Lobaria oregana (6.30
ppm) and Platismatia glauca (28.91 ppm). 

Only a few plots have lichens elevated above threshold for Sr: Alesar
plot 513 (Coronation Island Egg harbor)(Figure XXVIII-4); Hypogymnia
(Coronation Island Egg harbor)(Figure XXVIII-6); Lobore plot 62 is just
at threshold (Russell Fiords)(Figure XXVIII-8) and Plagla plot 510
(Warren Island)(Figure XXVIII-10).

XXVIII. SUMMARY OF Sr PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXVIII-1. Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXVIII-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXVIII-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors,
and 95% Confidence Intervals for the Sr ppm content of Alectoria
sarmentosa per year.

Sr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	9.46	1.3757	6.6153	12.3071

2005	Non-Wilderness	7.50	1.7813	2.9224	12.0803

2005	Wilderness	21.26	2.8934	14.7117	27.8023



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Sr are
baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in Sr content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVII-3, XXVII-4 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results)

Figure XXVIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Sr ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXVIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXVIII-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors,
and 95% Confidence Intervals for the Sr ppm content of Hypogymnia
species per year.

Sr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	15.90	3.3499	7.2877	24.5099

2005	Non-Wilderness	26.71	9.6389	14.7653	68.1803

2005	Wilderness	37.38	5.7698	24.0721	50.6823



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Sr are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Sr content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVIII-5,
XXVIII-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results)

Figure XXVIII-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Sr ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXVIII-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXVIII-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors,
and 95% Confidence Intervals for the Sr ppm content of Lobaria oregana
per year.

Sr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	3.93	0.5206	2.6519	5.1995

2005	Non-Wilderness	6.37	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	3.1641	1.2125	-0.6946	7.0229



No t-tests or regression were performed on these data due to lack of
repeated samples.  The mean values for Sr are baseline in Lobaria
oregana

Relationships are not strong in Sr content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVIII-7, XXVIII-8 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXVIII-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Sr ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXVIII-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXVIII-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors,
and 95% Confidence Intervals for the Sr ppm content of Platismatia
glauca per year.

Sr ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	10.96	2.5239	5.2512	16.6700

2005	Non-Wilderness	12.36	1.4866	8.9956	15.7215

2005	Wilderness	19.93	2.3339	14.4071	25.4449



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Sr are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Sr content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXVIII-9, XXVIII-10
for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXVIII-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Sr ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXVIII-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Sr ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Strontium (Sr) and all lichen species

Background Sr is not available for the Pacific Northwest.  Strontium is
not expected to be an anthropogenic pollutant on the Tongass, and
elevated levels are most likely due to natural sources.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Plot 513 from Coronation Island is elevated above threshold (Figure
XXIV-4).  This may be party do the natural variation in Sr, or related
to the close proximity to the ocean at Egg Harbor.  This area is also of
limestone geology, where Sr can be found associated. 

Hypogymnia

Plot 513 from Coronation Island is above Sr threshold for Hypogymnia for
the same explanations with Alesar. 

Lobaria oregana

Plot 62 from Russell Fiords Harlequin Lake area is just at threshold
level for Sr in Lobore (Figure XXIV-8).  This area reportedly receives a
lot of windblown dusts from the Yukon, and surrounding geology, which
could be an explanation for being the highest in Sr on the Tongass. 

Platismatia glauca

Plot 510 from Warren Island is elevated in Sr for Plagla (Figure
XXIV-10).  Similar to Coronation Island, Warren is exposed to the open
Pacific and extreme salt spray.  Lichens may be elevated due to seashore
enhancement. 

XXIX. Summary of results for Titanium (Ti) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Titanium is a white metal present in the earth’s crust, meteorites,
and the sun.  It is always found in igneous rocks and the sediments
derived by them (Weast et al 1987). Titanium is also present in iron
ores, ash of coal, plants, natural bodies of water, and the human body. 
It is an important alloying agent with metals such as aluminum,
molybdenum, manganese, and iron.  Titanium metal is lightweight and has
resistance to saltwater.  It is used in the rigging, shafts and
propellers of ocean vessels.  Titanium dioxide is used in artists and
house paints, accounting for the largest use of this element.  

Titanium was not analyzed during the first monitoring period. 
Provisional Tongass thresholds  for Ti are from the 2004 and 2005 data
and are the following: Alectoria sarmentosa (4.93 ppm); Hypogymnia
(62.42 ppm); Lobaria oregana (45.30 ppm); and Platismatia glauca (76.86
ppm).

Plots with lichens elevated above threshold for Ti are: Alesar plot 512
(Greens Creek tailings pile), plot 1000 ( Mt Roberts 175 ft elevation),
and plot 508 ( Endicott River)(Figure XXIX-4) ; Hypogymnia plot 512
(Greens Creek tailings), and plot 62 (Russell Fiords-Harlequin Lake)
(Figure XXIX-6); Lobore plot 62 is on the edge of threshold (Russell
Fiords) (Figure XXIX-8); and Plagla plot 512 (Greens Creek), plot 62
(Russell Fiord), and plot 1000 (Mt Roberts) is at threshold (Figure
XXIX-10). 

XXXIX. SUMMARY OF Ti PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXIX-1. Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXIX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXIX-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ti ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Ti ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.54	0.1631	1.2042	1.8790

2005	Non-Wilderness	5.92	2.0308	0.7029	11.1438

2005	Wilderness	1.73	0.5346	0.5238	2.9426



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Ti are
baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in Ti content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIX-3, XXIX-4 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXIX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ti ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year.

Figure XXIX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

 

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXIX-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ti ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Ti ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	14.52	5.0042	1.6582	27.3855

2005	Non-Wilderness	62.14	20.9610	28.0471	152.3288

2005	Wilderness	18.86	5.2284	6.8037	30.9170



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Ti are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Ti content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIX-5,
XXIX-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXIX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ti ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXIX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXIX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ti ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Ti ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	18.14	6.0711	3.2848	32.9958

2005	Non-Wilderness	45.49	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	5.19	2.1008	-1.4908	11.8807



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Ti are
baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Relationships are not strong in Ti content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIX-7, XXIX-8 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXIX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ti ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXIX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXIX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Ti ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Ti ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	26.94	6.2880	12.7109	41.1599

2005	Non-Wilderness	59.38	10.1738	36.3656	82.3953

2005	Wilderness	24.28	6.6642	8.5198	40.0363



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Ti are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Ti content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXIX-9, XXIX-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXIX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Ti ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXIX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Ti ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Titanium (Ti) and all lichen species

Background Ti in lichens from the Pacific Northwest or worldwide is not
available.  Threshold for Ti was developed using the 2004 and 2005 ICP
analysis data from pristine locations.  Elevated levels of Ti above
threshold on the Tongass are probably due to natural variation or direct
exposure to windblown soils or exposed rock containing titantium.  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Plot 512 from Greens Creek tailings area has the highest mean Ti in
Alesar, most likely due to the proximity to the tailings pile of exposed
rocks and soils from the mining process (Figure XXIX-4).  Higher than Ti
threshold on Mt Roberts (175 level plot 1000) may be due to the extinct
mine nearby, or other industial sources in the downtown Juneau area. 
Titanium is part of metal alloys used in many industries.  Plot 508 from
Endicott River is in an extremely exposed location on Chikat Peninsula,
and receives windblown soils from the Yukon and local geologic features.

Hypogymnia

Plot 512 from Greens Creek is elevated in Ti probably due to the reasons
stated under Alesar (Figure XXIX-6).  Plot 62 from Russell Fiords is
similar to plot 508 from Endicott in that it receives strong winds
containing soils and sands.  

Lobaria oregana

Plot 62 is just at Ti threshold in Lobore, probably due to the
explanations under Hypogymnia (Figure XXIX-8). 

Platismatia glauca

Mean Ti in Plagla is similar to other lichens for the same locations on
the Tongass.  Plot 512 from Greens Creek is elevated due to explanations
above under Alesar.  Plot 62 from Russell Fiords shows similar elevated
levels of Ti in Plagla as in other lichens from the same natural
sources.  On the edge of threshold is plot 1000 from Mt Roberts, and is
probably explained by the proximity to the extinct mine or downtown
Juneau.XXX. Summary of results for Vanadium (V) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Vanadium (V) occurs in nature as a metal.  It usually combines with
other elements such as oxygen, sodium, sulfur and chloride (USPHS 1992).
 Vanadium can be found pure (in crystal form) or with other compounds in
the earth’s crust and rocks, some iron ores, and crude petroleum
deposits.  It is combined with other metals to make alloys.  It is a
component in special steels used in automobile parts, springs and ball
bearings.  Small amounts are used in making rubber, plastics, ceramics
and other chemicals (USPHS 1992).  Vanadium enters the environment from
natural sources and from the burning of fossil fuels.  It remains in the
air, water, and soil for long periods of time.  No studies are available
as to the carcinogenicity of vanadium.  

Vanadium was not analyzed during the first monitoring period. 
Provisional thresholds for vanadium in lichens on the Tongass are from
the 2004 and 2005 data and are as follows: Alectoria sarmentosa (0.37
ppm), Hypogymnia (2.99 ppm), Lobaria oregana (2.42 ppm) and Platismatia
glauca (3.08 ppm). 

Levels of vanadium are elevated in lichens from the following locations
and species: Alesar plots 1000 ( Juneau Mt Roberts) plot 512 (Greens
Creek tailings) and plot 100 is at threshold (West Chichagof
wilderness)(Figure XXX-4); Hypogymnia plot 512 (Greens Creek tailings)
and plot 62 is at threshold (Russell Fiord-Harlequin Lake)(Figure
XXX-6); Lobore plot 495 (Stikine River-Flemer cabin)(Figure XXX-8);
Plagla plots 512 and 511b (Greens Creek), plots 1000 and 1001 (Juneau Mt
Roberts) and just at threshold is plot 508 (Endicott River )(Figure
XXX-10). 

XXX. SUMMARY OF V PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXX-1. Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXX-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXX-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the V ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

V ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	0.36	0.0010	0.3597	0.3639

2005	Non-Wilderness	0.42	0.0653	0.2522	0.5879

2005	Wilderness	0.32	0.0000	0.3200	0.3200



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for V are
baseline in Alectoria sarmentosa.

Relationships are not strong in V content for Alesar after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXX-3, XXX-4 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of V ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 



Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXX-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the V ppm content of Hypogymnia species per
year.

V ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.45	0.1356	1.1056	1.8029

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.95	1.1721	1.0898	8.9962

2005	Wilderness	1.35	0.2744	0.7167	1.9821



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for V are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in V content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXX-5,
XXX-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXX-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of V ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXX-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXX-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the V ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

V ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.11	0.3151	0.3360	1.8779

2005	Non-Wilderness	2.34	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	0.51	0.1711	-0.0302	1.0587



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for V are
baseline in Lobaria oregana.

Relationships are not strong in V content for Lobore after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXX-7, XXX-8 for year)
and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXX-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of V ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXX-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXX-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the V ppm content of Platismatia glauca per
year.

V ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2004	Wilderness	1.41	0.2856	0.7614	2.0535

2005	Non-Wilderness	3.55	0.4823	2.4584	4.6403

2005	Wilderness	1.45	0.3682	0.5794	2.3206



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for V are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in V content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXX-9, XXX-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXX-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of V ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXX-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of V ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Vanadium (V) and all lichen species

Background V from the Pacific Northwest and worldwide in lichens is not
available.  Thresholds for V were generated with 2004 and 2005 ICP
analysis data.  Elevated levels of V in lichens are probably due to
industrial and natural sources, depending upon the plot location.

Alectoria sarmentosa

Plot 1000 from Mt Roberts is elevated in V likely due to the close
proximity to the burning of fossil flues in the downtown Juneau area
(Figure XXX-4).  Similarly plot 512 from Greens Creek may be enhanced
due to the burning of fossil fuels from the mining industry and the
windblown soils from the tailings pile.  Lichens in plot 100 from West
Chichagof wilderness with V at threshold may be partof the natural
variation as no industrial sources exists in the area

Hypogymnia

Mean V is above threshold in plot 512 from Greens Creek most likely due
to the reasons stated above under Alesar (Figure XXX-6).  Plot 62 from
Russell Fiord is exposed to windblown soils and sands, as well as the
airstrip and unpaved road nearby.  All of these could play a role in the
enhanced level of V in the lichens.

Lobaria oregana

Plot 495 from the Stikine River Flemer cabin area is just at threshold
for V (Figure XXX-8).  This could be part of the natural variation of V
due to the windblown soils and sands from the interior. 

Platismatia glauca

Plots from Greens Creek (512 and 511b) are most likely elevated above
threshold for V due to the industrial sources and exposed rock and soils
at the mine (Figure XXX-10).  Plots 1000 (175 ft elevation) and 1001
(600 ft elevation) from Mt Roberts may be elevated due to the fossil
fuels burning in downtown Juneau, and the extinct mine in the area. 
Plot 508 from Endicott River is right at threshold and is probably part
of the natural variation of V in areas with exposure to windblown soils
and sandsXXXI. Summary of results for Zinc (Zn) from all species on the
Tongass National Forest

Zinc is one of the most common elements on earth.  It is found in the
air, soil, and water and is present in all foods.  Zinc has many uses in
industry.  It is used to coat iron or other metals to impede corrosion
or rust. It is also used to make alloys such as bronze and brass.  Zinc
compounds can be found at hazardous waste sites such as zinc chloride,
zinc oxide, zinc sulfate and zinc sulfide (USPHS 1994).  Zinc oxide is
used to make white paints, ceramics and rubber.  Zinc compounds are also
used to make wood preservatives, and in manufacturing fabrics, sun
block, ointments, and other cosmetics.  

Zinc enters the air water and soils naturally and though human
activities.  Activities that introduce zinc into the environment are
mining, purifying of zinc, lead and cadmium ores, steel production, coal
burning, and burning of wastes (USPHS 1994).  

Provisional thresholds for zinc on the Tongass are the following:
Alectoria sarmentosa (38.06 ppm), Hypogymnia (70.20 ppm), Lobaria
oregana (82.93 ppm) and Platismatia glauca (52.85 ppm).

Locations with lichens elevated above threshold for Zn include: Alesar
plots 1000, 1002 and 1004 (Mt Roberts-Juneau), 512 (Greens Creek
tailings pile), and 108 and 240 from Sitka road system and closed pulp
mill area (Figure XXXI-4); Hypogymnia plots 511b, 512 (Greens Creek),
506 ( lower Endicott River ), and 242 (Sitka pulp mill area) (Figure
XXXI-6); Lobore plots 64 (Yakutat road system), 62 (Russell Fiords) and
506 (lower Endicott River)(Figure XXXI-8); Plagla plots 511a, 511b, 512
(Greens Creek), and 1004 (Mt Roberts 1745 ft elevation) (Figure
XXXI-10). 

XXXI. SUMMARY OF Zn PPM DATA ANALYSIS

Figure XXXI-1. Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Figure XXXI-2. Non-Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in All Species per year. 

Alectoria sarmentosa

Table XXXI-1. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Zn ppm content of Alectoria sarmentosa
per year.

Zn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	19.23	1.4279	15.2625	23.1915

1989	Wilderness	27.70	2.1087	22.2788	33.1200

1990	Non-Wilderness	22.61	1.7568	19.0031	26.2253

1990	Wilderness	24.43	2.4163	18.5126	30.3374

1991	Non-Wilderness	22.3505	0.7525	20.7696	23.9314

1991	Wilderness	25.74	2.1710	19.7112	31.7663

1992	Non-Wilderness	26.01	2.7419	19.5289	32.4961

2003	Wilderness	20.21	7.9278	80.5194	120.9439

2004	Wilderness	20.04	1.1782	17.6020	22.4764

2005	Non-Wilderness	60.43	10.7321	32.8410	88.0166

2005	Wilderness	27.16	1.9577	22.7344	31.5919



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.048, df = 8, p-value = 0.9629

There is no evidence of a difference in Zn content in Alectoria
sarmentosa from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.9629). 
Plots with repeated samples for Zn in Alesar are: Karta River (#159),
Pleasant Island (#145, 146), Pikes Lake RNA (# 69), Kootznoowoo (# 189,
190), Petersburg Creek (#116), Stikine-LeConte (#30, 31), Yakobi (#101),
Tebenkof (#33) and Misty Fiords (#85, 86).

Relationships are not strong in the Zn content in Alectoria sarmentosa
after accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures
XXXI-3, XXXI-4 for year ) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all
graphed results).

Figure XXXI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Zn ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Figure XXXI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in Alectoria sarmentosa per year. 

Hypogymnia species

In this series, all of the Hypogymnia species were included as a group. 

Table XXXI-2. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Zn ppm content of Hypogymnia species
per year.

Zn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	24.05	2.2500	4.5390	52.6390

1989	Wilderness	35.66	4.5948	22.8977	48.4123

1990	Non-Wilderness	43.21	4.2690	34.2443	52.1820

1990	Wilderness	33.94	2.8097	27.0677	40.8180

2003	Wilderness	33.15	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	50.18	5.1319	36.9903	63.3743

2005	Non-Wilderness	465.56	227.7318	514.2949	1445.4066

2005	Wilderness	58.42	4.7799	47.3967	69.4416



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Zn are
baseline in Hypogymnia.

Relationships are not strong in Zn content for Hypogymnia after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXXI-5,
XXXI-6 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXXI-5. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Zn ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 

Figure XXXI-6. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in Hypogymnia species per year. 



Lobaria oregana

Table XXXI-3. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Zn ppm content of Lobaria oregana per
year.

Zn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

1989	Non-Wilderness	24.95	6.2151	5.1709	44.7291

1989	Wilderness	38.52	5.9265	22.0631	54.9723

1990	Non-Wilderness	48.98	5.5963	36.7844	61.1708

1990	Wilderness	43.61	2.7187	36.6252	50.6026

2004	Wilderness	46.80	6.0877	31.9051	61.6971

2005	Non-Wilderness	88.41	NA	NA	NA

2005	Wilderness	46.39	12.1530	7.7157	85.0684



Summary of Statistical Tests:

t = -0.7491, df = 4, p-value = 0.4955

There is no evidence of a difference in Zn content in Lobaria oregana
from pre-2000 and post 2000 samples (p-value = 0.4955).  This analysis
was for wilderness areas that had repeated values for Zn in Lobaria
oregana:  Russell Fiords (plot 62 near Harlequin Lake), Tebenkof (33)
and Misty Fiords (86, 88). 

Relationships are not strong in the Zn content in Lobaria oregana after
accounting for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXXI-7,
XXXI-8 for year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed
results).

Figure XXXI-7. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Zn ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 

Figure XXXI-8. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in Lobaria oregana per year. 



Platismatia glauca

Table XXXI-4. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness Means, Standard Errors, and
95% Confidence Intervals for the Zn ppm content of Platismatia glauca
per year.

Zn ppm	95% CI

Year	Plot Type	Mean	Std. Error	Lower	Upper

2003	Wilderness	24.65	NA	NA	NA

2004	Wilderness	26.81	2.2295	21.7695	31.8566

2005	Non-Wilderness	317.57	164.4844	54.5146	689.6646

2005	Wilderness	33.70	5.2992	21.1646	46.2260



No t-tests were performed on these data.  The mean values for Zn are
baseline in Platismatia glauca.

Relationships are not strong in Zn content for Plagla after accounting
for latitude, longitude, elevation, year (Figures XXI-9, XXI-10 for
year) and precipitation (see Brenner, 2006 for all graphed results).

Figure XXXI-9. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness yearly means of Zn ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Figure XXXI-10. Wilderness and Non-Wilderness plot means of Zn ppm 

in Platismatia glauca per year. 

Conclusions: for Zinc (Zn) and all lichen species

Zinc in lichens can be enhanced due to many factors including automobile
exhaust, urban and industrial areas, and areas of marine influence (USDA
1999; Davidson at al 1985).  All thresholds are slightly higher than the
background Zn in the Pacific Northwest, indicating that lichens may be
regionally enhanced due to natural sources of Zn on the Tongass. 
Neiboer and others (1978) suggested that enhanced Zn levels in lichens
are above 500 ppm, but depending on the location, lichens may be
enhanced with as low as 30 ppm (Neiboer and Richardson 1981).  

Alectoria sarmentosa

Background Zn for Alesar in the Pacific Northwest are slightly lower
than threshold for Zn on the Tongass (25 ppm and 38.06 ppm respectively)
(USDA 1999).  Lichens may be regioanlly enhanced due to the geology and
hypermaritime region.  Lichens from Greens Creek plot 512 are elevated
due to the close proximity to the tailings pile where exposed ore is
stored.  Plots from the Mt Roberts area in Juneau (1000, 1002, and 1004)
are most likely elevated above threshold due to the nearby urban setting
of the hillside where the lichens were collected, and possibly due to
the extinct mine in the vicinity (Figure XXXI-4).  Plots from the Sitka
road system and closed pulp mill (plots 108 and 240) are elevated due to
the proximity to industry and automobile exhaust.  These plots have not
been remonitored.

Hypogymnia

Background Zn in Hypogymnia from the Pacific Northwest are between 35
and 60 ppm (USDA 1999).  Tongass threshold is slightly higher at 70.20
ppm.  Plots from Greens Creek are expected to be high in Zn due to the
ore mining industry (511b and 512) and associated roads and vehicle
exhaust (Figure XXXI-6).  Plot 506 from the lower Endicott River is
slightly above threshold, and may be part of the natural variation due
to the close proximity to the ocean or exposed geology of the Chilkat
Peninsula.  Plot 242 from Sitka is slightly elevated above threshold due
to reasons stated above for other plots near Sitka. 

Lobaria oregana

Background Zn for Lobore in the Pacific Northwest are lower than the
threshold established for Zn on the Tongass (50 ppm and 82.93 ppm
respectively) (USDA 1999).  The Yakutat plot 64 from the road system is
probably elevated above threshold due to the proximity to automobile
exhaust and the unpaved road.  Plot 62 from Russell Fiords may be
elevated due to the close proximity to unpaved roads, the airstrip and
windblown soils.  Lichens from both plots on the Yakutat District may
also be elevated as a function of the natural variation in Zn, as levels
are not much higher in magnitude above threshold (Figure XXXI-8). 
Similarly, Zn from plot 506 on Endicott River is just at threshold,
indicating part of the natural variation.  

Platismatia glauca

Background Zn from the Pacific Northwest is below the threshold for the
Tongass in Plagla (30 ppm and 52.85 ppm respectively) (USDA 1999).  At
over 1600 ppm, Greens Creek Plagla (plot 511b) is within what is
considered enhanced due to urban and industrial sources (between 1000
and 13000 ppm) (USDA 1999) (Figure XXXI-10).  What is considered
enhanced due to mine and smelter activities worldwide is between 2000
and 25000 ppm (USDA 1999).  The high precipitation in the region may
account for lower Zn levels than what is assumed enhanced due to mining
activities worldwide.  The next lowest mean Zn in Plagla is from the
plot 51la upstream from the portal about 200 ft, indicating that Zn is
airborne in the road dust and settling some distances from the unpaved
road and portal.  The Plagla at the tailings pile is lower still at 400
ppm, indicating that less Zn is being released into the environment from
the tailings pile than what is released at or near the portal.  Plot
1004 from the 1745 ft level on Mt Roberts is curiously higher in Zn than
the lower elevations that are closer to Juneau.  Plot 1004 was also the
highest in Zn for Alesar.  It is possible that the tram and restaurant
at the top of the hill may emit Zn in the mechanisms of this tourism
industry.  

 

XXXII. THRESHOLDS

Species	S	N	Al	B	Ba	Be

Alesar	0.06	0.56	56.78	9.33	15.84	0.04

Hypog	0.09	0.88	1126.44	9.47	76.62	0.04

Lobore	0.13	NA	580.03	4.06	16.46	0.04

Plagla	0.08	0.80	1063.57	6.05	53.80	0.04









Species	Ca	Cd	Co	Cr	Cu	Fe

Alesar	9689.25	0.40	0.78	0.73	1.86	55.64

Hypog	24671.17	0.61	1.25	2.38	31.31	1990.78

Lobore	1158.10	0.55	0.83	1.51	10.18	1010.97

Plagla	4104.48	0.32	1.14	3.29	7.55	1773.56









Species	K	Li	Mg	Mn	Mo	Na

Alesar	2413.25	0.40	740.83	188.24	0.54	893.16

Hypog	3284.34	0.71	2127.70	860.85	0.54	929.13

Lobore	8001.57	0.59	735.79	168.00	0.54	394.30

Plagla	2523.88	0.60	1717.08	483.70	0.54	693.21









Species	Ni	P	Pb	Rb	Si	Sr

Alesar	0.96	913.75	5.00	53.00	134.75	33.56

Hypog	4.26	1597.23	10.13	53.00	563.82	61.26

Lobore	1.65	2532.49	3.52	53.00	681.18	6.30

Plagla	2.65	1115.00	3.52	53.00	635.83	28.91









Species	Ti	V	Zn



	Alesar	4.93	0.37	38.06



	Hypog	62.42	2.99	70.20



	Lobore	45.30	2.42	82.93



	Plagla	76.86	3.08	52.85



	

XXXIII Conclusions 

Air quality of the Tongass National Forest is relatively good.  Of the
127 monitoring sites, 67 exhibit no elemental enhancement above
provisional thresholds.  Of these 67 sites, 31 are in wilderness where
air quality is also assumed to be very good.  The remaining 65 sites
have one or more elements at or above provisional threshold; 21 of these
sites are in wilderness (Table XXXIII-1).  Most of the contaminents
elevated in lichens from non-wilderness sites are attributed to unpaved
roads, nearby industrial sources, or natural sources such as the geology
of the site.  There were no relationships among the elemental content in
lichens and physiographic characteristics such as elevation, latitude,
longitude, and precipitation.  Therefore, elevated levels of certain
contaminenets are most likely due to what occurs in the local
environment near the monitoring site and are not influenced by the
physiographic factors measured at a site. 

An objective of this recent biomonitoring initiative was to establish
provisional elemental thresholds for target lichen species that can be
used in future air quality biomonitoring work on the Tongass and in the
Alaska Region.  As shown in Table XXXII-1 and throughout this report,
provisional thresholds were established for 27 elements on the Tongass
National Forest.  Provisional thresholds can be used as a comparison to
determine if levels are enhanced beyond what is considered clean or
background for a species on the Tongass.  The Tongass generally has
higher thresholds  in many elements than the average background levels
in the Pacific Northwest.  This is most likely due to the hypermaritime
influence and active geologic processes of the region. 

Most of the wilderness areas that contain lichens elevated above
threshold are in locations with exposure to the open ocean or to the
interior climates of the mainland (i.e. Tebenkof, Endicott River,
Stikine River, Russell Fiords, Coronation, Warren).  Mainland areas tend
to be drier and contain windblown sands and soils that are continual
sources for dry and wet deposition on the lichen thallus.  Lichens
quickly hydrate during humid conditions and elements are then absorbed
into the tissues where they remain until they are leached out over time
into the environment.  Exposed locations on the beaches are susceptible
to incessant salt spray containing naturally occurring elements in sea
water (i.e. Ca, S, Mn, and Na).  Elements are deposited on lichens from
the salt spray and absorbed into the thallus.  The use of some bays as
anchorages by marine vessels such as Coronation and Warren Islands may
also enhance certain contaminants in the beach lichens due to burning of
fossil fuels.  

Another objective of the recent biomonitoring initiative was to
determine patterns of contaminant accumulation in relation to the
industrialization of Greens Creek mine and downtown Juneau.  Both of
these areas contain large machinery and/or vehicles that burn fossil
fuels which produce NOx.  Elevated sulfur in these areas is most likely
anthropogenic from diesel power and other machinery.  Greens Creek and
Juneau are not in exposed locations subjected to continual salt spray as
are the more pristine places that were elevated in sulfur (ie. Tebenkof,
Coronation). 

The three Greens Creek sites contained between 7 and 17 different
contaminents elevated above threshold.  The most common were cadmium,
copper, iron, sulfur, lead, zinc, vanadium, and nickel.  Several of
these contaminants were at the highest levels reported in lichens on the
Tongass.  Some contaminants were also within ranges considered enhanced
due to smelters and mining from worldwide studies.  Therefore, the
levels of some contaminants from Greens Creek are similar to other sites
in industrial locations worldwide with heavy metal air pollution.  The
tailings pile site contained the most elements above threshold, followed
by the site near the entrance to the portal.  This indicates that the
open tailings pile releases contaminants into the air and surrounding
environs through weathering of the exposed ore.  These contaminants are
mainly from the ore dusts extracted in the mining process.  

The five monitoring sites on Mt Roberts in Juneau had at least three
elements above threshold from each of the five sites.  The 175 ft
elevation site sampled near the downtown tram contained 13 elements at
or above threshold level (Table XXXIII-1).  The most common elements
elevated were nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, sulfur, and zinc. 
Additionally, Mt Roberts’s sampling sites are above the cruise ship
docking area where ships use diesel power when in port.  Along with this
industry, automobile traffic and wood burning stoves play a role in
contributing air pollutants in the downtown area. 

From the data presented in this report, it is probable that contaminant
enhancement in lichens from the Juneau and Greens Creek area are
attributed to industrial and urban sources.  However, the distance
beyond the monitoring sites that the elements have dispersed into the
forest or surrounding habitats is unknown.  Land managers concerned with
air quality in Juneau and Greens Creek should consider implementing a
gradient of collection locations radiating from the pollution sources to
determine where the levels of certain elements drop below threshold.  

Elemental air data can also be compared and contrasted to water quality
data to determine if airborne contaminants are eventually leaching into
soils and freshwater sources.  Air pollution is directly tied to forest
health.  Deposition of certain pollutants may harm vegetation and soil
resources due to changes in pH of the soil water, thus increasing the
solubility of certain ions and promoting leaching.  These mobilized ions
can damage roots and soil biota (CARB 1989).  

Due to time constraints, lichen community data were collected at Greens
Creek, but not on Mt Roberts.  Lichen species diversity or the presence
of nitrophilous lichens can also be an indicator of elemental
enhancement.  Similary, the abundance and overall health of the lichens
at a particular site can be useful in determining enhancement impacts. 

Table XXXIII-1. Summary of air biomonitoring data on the Tongass
National Forest. Plots with elemental values above provisional threshold
levels are in bold type for an element. Alectoria sarmentosa = Alesar;
Lobaria oregana = Lobore; Platismatia glauca = Plagla. All other
elements not in bold were at threshold level.

Plot Number	General location	Lichen species and elevated elements
Possible sources

28	Petersburg Creek wilderness	none

	29	Petersburg Creek wilderness	Alesar: Mn, Ni	Natural variation,
geology

57	Petersburg Creek wilderness	none

	82	Petersburg Creek wilderness	none

	116	Petersburg Creek wilderness	Alesar: Mn	Natural variation, geology

237	Petersburg Creek wilderness-not permanent plot	none

	145	Pleasant Island wilderness	none

	146	Pleasant Island wilderness	none

	189	Kootznoowoo wilderness-Gambier Bay	Alesar: Cd

Hypogymnia: Mn	Natural variation, geology

190	Kootznoowoo wilderness-Gambier Bay	Hypogymnia: Mn	Natural variation,
geology

30	Stikine River wilderness-Shakes	none

	31	Stikine River wilderness-main river	Plagla: Mn, Si 	Windblown soils

195	Stikine River wilderness-Gut Island	Plagla: B	marine influence,
windblown soils

494	Stikine River wilderness-Andrews Slough	none

	495	Stikine River-Flemer cabin	Lobore: Ba, Si, V	Windblown soils

503	Stikine wilderness-Thunder Mt	none

	496	South Etolin wilderness-alpine lake	none

	497	South Etolin wilderness-alpine lake	none

	199	Bradfield area-Harding River	none

	32	Tebenkof wilderness-beach	Alesar: Mg 

Lobore: P	Marine influence, marine vessels 

33	Tebenkof wilderness-beach	Alesar: S, Al, Cu, K, P 

Lobore: S	Marine influence, marine vessels

500	Tebenkof wilderness-beach	none

	37	Cape Fanshaw	Lobore: Mn	Natural variation, geology

192	Point Agazii-PRD mainland	none

	43	Shrine of St Teresa-Juneau- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: Al 	road dust

159	Karta River wilderness	none

	39	Mitkof Island Raven’s Roost	none

	Plot Number	General location	Lichen species and elevated elements
Possible sources

40	Mitkof Island, Raven’s Roost	none

	42	Mitkof Island Raven’s Roost	none

	44	Mitkof Island near Petersburg temporary plot	Hypogymnia: Al	road
dust

91	Mitkof Island Crystal mountain- temporary plot	none

	118	Mitkof Island-Froot Rd	Alesar: Cd	Road dust, nearby rifle range 

117	Mitkof-3 Lakes Loop Rd- temporary plot	none

	124	Mitkof Island-off  6227 Rd	none

	140	Mitkof Island, Twin Creeks	none

	167	Mitkof Island, Woodpecker	none

	121	Kupreanof Is, Sherman Pk	none

	152	Woewodski Is Harvey Lake- temporary plot	none

	60	Yakutat bunkhouse- temporary plot	none

	64	Yakutat road system- temporary plot	none

	65	Yakutat Pike lakes RNA	none

	66	Yakutat Greens Pond	Alesar:Cr

Hypogymnia: Cr

Lobore: Cu	road dust

67	Yakutat road 11 mile- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S

Lobore: B	Road dust

69	Yakutat Pikes Lakes RNA	Alesar: Al

Plagla: N, Al	Road dust, windblown soils

208	Yakutat Pikes Lakes RNA	none

	209	Yakutat Pikes lake RNA	none

	210	Yakutat Pikes Lakes RNA	none

	211	Yakutat Pikes Lakes RNA	none

	212	Yakutat Pikes Lakes RNA	none

	62	Russell Fiords wilderness	Hypogymnia : Al, Cr, Li, Si, Ti, V

Lobore: Al, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Li, Ni, Ti

Plagla: Cr, Li, Ni, Ti	Road dust, bridge, airstrip, windblown soils from
interior, and nearby glaciers

76	Dog Island, near Duke Is.- temporary plot	Alesar: Cd	Geology, natural
variation

77	Dog Island near Duke Is.	none

	79	Kuiu Island-Kell Bay isthmus- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: Ca, Mn

Lobore: Mn	Salt spray

80	Kuiu Island-Kell Bay isthmus- temporary plot	none

	81	Kuiu Island-Kell Bay isthmus	Alesar: Ca	Salt spray

Plot Number	General location	Lichen species and elevated elements
Possible sources

219	Kuiu Island- Rowan Ck	Alesar: Al, Fe	Road dust

220	Kuiu Island Crane Ck	none

	498	Kuiu wilderness-Malmsberry Lk	none

	499	Kuiu wilderness-Malmsberry Lk	none

	86	Misty Fiords-Hugh Smith	Lobore: K	Natural variation

88	Misty Fiords-Hugh Smith	none

	83	Misty Fiords Manzanita Lk	none

	84	Misty Fiords Manzanita Lk	none

	85	Misty Fiords Manzanita Lk	none

	164	Cleveland Pen.Lk McDonald	none

	98	Chichagof Is. Dry Pass, West Chichagof wilderness	none

	99	Chichagof Is. Dry Pass, West Chichagof wilderness	Alesar: Na	Marine
influence

100	Myriad Island-West Chichagof wilderness	Alesar: Mn, V	Marine
influence, geology, or natural variation

101	Myriad Island-West Chichagof wilderness	none

	110	Juneau Amalga Tr Yankee Basin 	Lobore: Cd	Old mine site, geology or
natural variation

111	Juneau Amalga Tr-Boulder Ck 	Alesar: Mn

Hypogymnia: K, P

Lobore: K	Old mine site, geology or natural variation

102	Baranof Island-Big Bay	none

	105	Baranof Island-Kanga Bay	none

	221	Douglas Island-Eaglecrest Rd	Alesar: Al, Cd, Pb	Nearby road, old
mining

112	Douglas Island-Eaglecrest Rd	none

	113	Berners Bay- Cove Pt	Alesar: Co, K, P

Hypogymnia: Al	marine influence, old mine nearby, natural variation

114	Berners Bay-Cove Pt	none

	130	Revilla Island, Settlers Cove	Alesar: Ca	Ocean influence

125	Revilla Is. Ward Lake	none

	132	Gravina Is	none

	133	Gravina is	none

	135	Bold Is KMRD	none

	142	Whitestone-Hoonah	Alesar: Na	Natural variation

143	Whitestone-Hoonah	Alesar: Al, Na	Nearby road, natural variation

107	Sitka near Blue lk- temporary plot	Alesar: Ca, Ni, P	Road dust,
industry, urban

108	Sitka near Thimbleberry Tr.- temporary plot	Alesar: Al, B, Cd, Cu,
Na, Zn  Hypogymnia: B, Na	Road dust, industry, urban

Plot Number	General location	Lichen species and elevated elements
Possible sources

236	Sitka Blue Lake rd- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: Cr, Ni, P	Road dust,
industry, urban

239	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S, Cr, Cu, K, Ni, Pb	Road
dust, industry, urban

241	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: K, P, Pb	Road dust, industry,
urban

240	Sitka Hwy temporary plot	Alesar: S, Al, Cr, Cu, Fe, Ni, Zn	Road
dust, industry, urban

242	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S, Cr, K, Pb, Zn	Road dust,
industry, urban

243	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S, Al, B, Cr, Fe, K, Ni, P, Pb
Road sust, industry, urban





	244	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S, Al, Cr, K, Ni, Pb 	Road
sust, industry, urban

245	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: B, Cr, Fe, Ni	Road dust,
industry, urban

246	Sitka Hwy- temporary plot	Alesar: Cr

Hypogymnia: S, B, Cd, Mg

Lobore: B, Cr, Cu, Mg, Mn, Pb	Road dust, industry, urban

487	S. Baranof wilderness-West Crawfish	none

	488	S. Baranof wilderness -West Crawfish	none

	489	S. Baranof wilderness-Red Bluff Bay	none

	490	S. Baranof wilderness-Red Bluff Bay	none

	491	Chuck River-mouth of river	none

	492	Chuck River-Taylor Creek	none

	493	Chuck River-Taylor Lake	none

	504	Tracy Arm wilderness-muskeg	none

	505	Tracy Arm wilderness-forest	none

	506	Endicott River wilderness-lower river	Hypogymnia: N, Ca, Zn

Lobore: Ca, Zn

Plagla: N, Co	Marine influence, marine traffic, geology, natural
variation

507	Endicott River wilderness-upper river	Alesar: Ba, Ca

Hypogymnia: S	Unknown S source, geology, natural variation

508	Endicott River wilderness-upper river	Alesar: Al, Ba, Fe, K, Si, Ti
Hypogymnia: S, Ba, Co, K. Plagla: Ba, Co, P, V	Geology, windblown soils
from interior, unknown S source

509	Warren Island wilderness- muskeg	Hypogymnia: Mg	Natural variation or
marine influence

Plot Number	General location	Lichen species and elevated elements
Possible sources

510	Warren Island wilderness-Warren Cove	Alesar: S, N, Mg

Plagla: K, Mg	Exposed to ocean, marine anchorage

511a	Green Creek mine plot near stream	Plagla: Ba, Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, V, Zn
Mining activities

511b	Greens Creek mine at portal- temporary plot	Hypogymnia: S, Cd, Cu,
K, Pb

Plagla: S, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Ni, P, Pb, V, Zn	Mining activities

512	Greens Creek mine-tailing pile	Alesar: S, N, Al, Ba, Cd, Cu, Fe, Pb,
Si, Ti, V, Zn

Hypogymnia: S, Al, Cd, Co, Cu, Fe, Li, Ni, Pb, Si, Ti, V, Zn

Plagla: S, Al, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Li, Ni, Pb, Si, Ti, V, Zn
Mining activities

513	Coronation wilderness-Egg Harbor	Alesar: N

Hypogymnia: Mg

Plagla: S	Exposure to open ocean, marine vessel anchorage

513	Coronation wilderness-Windy Pass	Alesar: Ca	Natural variation,
exposure to open ocean

71	POW Old Toms Ck RNA	none

	72	POW Old Toms Ck RNA	none

	73	POW Old Toms Ck RNA	none

	119	POW Coffman Cove	none

	120	POW Coffman Cove	none

	128	POW Naukati	none

	515	S Prince of Wales wilderness-muskeg	none

	516	S Prince of Wales wilderness-beach	Alesar: S, Mg	Marine influence

1000	Mt Roberts 175 ft 	Alesar: S, N, Al, Ba, Cu, Fe, Na, Ti, V

Plagla: N, Cr, K, Ni, P, Ti, V	urban Juneau, cruise ship dock, old mine

1001	Mt Roberts  600 ft	Plagla: S, K, Ni, P, V	urban Juneau, cruise ship
dock, old mine

1002	Mt Roberts  910 ft	Alesar: P, Zn

Plagla: S, K, P	urban Juneau, cruise ship dock, old mine

1003	Mt Roberts  1241 ft	Plagla: N, K, P	urban Juneau, cruise ship dock,
old mine

1004	Mt Roberts  1750 ft	Alesar: Zn

Plagla: N, K, P, Zn	urban Juneau, cruise ship dock, old mine, tourist
tram station



Recommendations for future biomonitoring with lichens

Consider monitoring only certain elements such as sulfur, nitrogen and
some heavy metals that have levels above threshold for Tongass
biomonitoring plots.  This will reduce the costs in the ICP analysis and
the generation of results and subsequent reports. 

Monitor wilderness plots every 5 years to determine trends in elemental
deposition and changes in trans-pacific transport of nitrogen.  In
wilderness areas with elements elevated above threshold, gather more
detailed information on the surrounding geology if available as well as
the frequency of marine traffic (in the case of Coronation, Tebenkof and
Warren). 

Monitor non-wilderness plots of interest every 5 to10 years to help
determine if pollutants are from nearby anthropogenic sources.  Revisit
the Sitka plots along the road and near the extinct pulp mill to
determine if the elemental content of the lichens have changed since the
mill has closed. 

Analyze the lichen community data from all the biomonitoring plots, and
include the FIA plots that contain with lichen community data.  This
will document trends in species composition and abundance across the
Forest and serve as baseline for changes due to atmospheric depositions
and climate change due to global warming.  



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Neiboer, E., D.H.S. Richardson, and F.D. Tomassini 1978. Mineral uptake
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Nowacki, G., M. Shephard, P. Krosse, W. Pawuk, G. Fisher, J. Baichtal,
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Ramsey F.L. and D.W. Schafer. 1997. The Statistical Sleuth, A Course in
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Rona, P.A. 2003. Resources of the Sea Floor. Science 31 Vol 299 No 5607
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Richardson, D.H.S 1988. Understanding the pollution sensitivity of
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  HYPERLINK "http://www.nacse.org/lichenair/" 
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USPHS 1990.  Toxicology Profile for Chromium. Agency for Toxic
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  HYPERLINK "http://www.eco-usa.net/toxics/chromium.shtml" 
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_______ 1992.  Toxicology Profile for Barium: Agency for Toxic
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  HYPERLINK "http://www.eco-usa.net/toxics/barium.shtml" 
http://www.eco-usa.net/toxics/barium.shtml 

_______ 1992 Toxicology Profile for Vanadium: Agency for Toxic
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  HYPERLINK "http://www.eco-usa.net/toxics/vanadium.shtml" 
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_______ 1993.  Toxicological Profile for Cobalt. Agency for Toxic
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See Geiser et al (1994) for a discussion on standards used and methods
in the laboratory for ICP analysis.

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AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Table of Contents


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





AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Executive Summary 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Acknowledgements



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



AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

	Introduction   PAGE  3 



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



AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Methods   PAGE  8 



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


AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

(% S) Percent Sulfur   PAGE  17 

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






AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

(% N) Percent Nitrogen   PAGE  30 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (Al) Aluminum PPM   PAGE  40 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (B) Boron PPM   PAGE  52 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

(Ba) Barium PPM   PAGE  64 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (Be) Beryllium ppm   PAGE  75 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (Ca) Calcium ppm   PAGE  76 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (Cd) Cadmium ppm   PAGE  88 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

 (Co) Cobalt ppm   PAGE  100 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Cr (Chromium) ppm   PAGE  113 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Cu (Copper) ppm   PAGE  128 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Fe (Iron) ppm   PAGE  139 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 



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um) ppm   PAGE  151 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Li (Lithium) ppm   PAGE  162 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Mg (Magnesium) ppm   PAGE  171 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Mn (Manganese) ppm   PAGE  182 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Mo (Molybdenum) ppm   PAGE  195 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Na (Sodium) ppm   PAGE  205 





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


AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Ni (Nickel) ppm   PAGE  217 


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





AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

P (Phosphorus) ppm   PAGE  229 



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



AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Pb (Lead) ppm   PAGE  242 






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

AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Rb (Rubidium) ppm   PAGE  253 


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>
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


AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Si (Silicon) ppm   PAGE  255 



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

AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Sr (Strontium) ppm   PAGE  266 



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

AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Ti (Titanium) ppm   PAGE  278 



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
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

AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

V (Vanadium) ppm   PAGE  287 



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



AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Zn (Zinc) ppm   PAGE  298 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Thresholds   PAGE  310 









AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Conclusions   PAGE  311 

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

AIR QUALITY BIO-MONITORING WITH LICHENS

TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST 

Literature Cited   PAGE  320 

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