U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Sterndrive and Inboard Marine 

SI Engine Technologies and Costs

Preliminary Report

July 2006

021348

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U.S. Environmental Protection Agency

Sterndrive and Inboard Marine

SI Engine Technologies and Costs

Final Report

July 2006

Prepared for

U.S Environmental Protection Agency

Office of Transportation and Air Quality

2000 Traverwood Drive

Ann Arbor, Michigan 48105



Prepared by:

Louis Browning and Seth Hartley

ICF International

394 Pacific

San Francisco, CA 94111

(415) 677-7100



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Table of Contents

  TOC \o "1-2" \h \z \t "Heading 3,3"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853049" 
1.	Introduction	  PAGEREF _Toc139853049 \h  1-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853050"  2.	Background	  PAGEREF _Toc139853050 \h
 2-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853051"  3.	Technology Description	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853051 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853052"  3.1.	Baseline Technologies	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853052 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853053"  3.2.	Advanced Technologies	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853053 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853054"  3.2.1.	Fuel System Technologies	 
PAGEREF _Toc139853054 \h  3-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853055"  3.2.2.	Exhaust Gas Recirculation	 
PAGEREF _Toc139853055 \h  3-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853056"  3.2.3.	Oxygen Sensors	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853056 \h  3-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853057"  3.2.4.	Electronic Control Modules	 
PAGEREF _Toc139853057 \h  3-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853058"  3.2.5.	Catalysts	  PAGEREF _Toc139853058
\h  3-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853059"  4.	Cost Methodology	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853059 \h  4-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853060"  4.1.	Hardware Costs	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853060 \h  4-1  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853061"  4.2.	Fixed Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc139853061
\h  4-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853062"  4.3.	Operating Costs	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853062 \h  4-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853063"  5.	Results	  PAGEREF _Toc139853063 \h 
5-1  

 

List of Figures

  TOC \h \z \c "Figure"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853080"  Figure 2-1.
Volvo Sterndrive Gasoline Aquamatic Engine	  PAGEREF _Toc139853080 \h 
2-1  

 

List of Tables

  TOC \h \z \c "Table"    HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853066"  Table 2-1.
Sterndrive and Inboard Boat Sale Estimates (2000-2004) (NMMA)	  PAGEREF
_Toc139853066 \h  2-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853067"  Table 3-1. Three Way Catalyst
Characteristics	  PAGEREF _Toc139853067 \h  3-4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853068"  Table 4-1.  Production Levels (units per
year)	  PAGEREF _Toc139853068 \h  4-2  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853069"  Table 5-1. Water Cooled Marine Gasoline
Engine 3.0 liters In-line	  PAGEREF _Toc139853069 \h  5-3  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853070"  Table 5-2. Water Cooled Marine Gasoline
Engine 4.3 liters V-6	  PAGEREF _Toc139853070 \h  5-4  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853071"  Table 5-3. Water Cooled Marine Gasoline
Engine 5.7 liters V-8	  PAGEREF _Toc139853071 \h  5-5  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853072"  Table 5-4. Water Cooled Marine Gasoline
Engine 8.1 liters V-8	  PAGEREF _Toc139853072 \h  5-6  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853073"  Table 5-5. Three-way Marine Catalysts
Cost Estimates	  PAGEREF _Toc139853073 \h  5-7  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853074"  Table 5-6. Engine Manufacturer Research,
Development and Prototype Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc139853074 \h  5-8  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853075"  Table 5-7. Engine Manufacturer Tooling
Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc139853075 \h  5-8  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853076"  Table 5-8. Marinizer Research,
Development and Testing Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc139853076 \h  5-9  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853077"  Table 5-9. Marinizer Tooling Costs	 
PAGEREF _Toc139853077 \h  5-9  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853078"  Table 5-10. Summary of Incremental
Technology Costs	  PAGEREF _Toc139853078 \h  5-10  

  HYPERLINK \l "_Toc139853079"  Table 5-11.  Operating Cost Savings	 
PAGEREF _Toc139853079 \h  5-10  

 

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Introduction

	Adopted in 1996, the United States Environmental Protection Agency’s
(USEPA) final rule on spark-ignited (SI) marine engines did not contain
emission limits for sterndrive-inboard SI engines.  USEPA is considering
new emission standards for sterndrive and inboard marine SI propulsion
engines similar to those recently passed by the California Air Resources
Board. 

	Updated technology will be required to reduce emissions from
uncontrolled sterndrive and inboard marine SI engines to a level that
will meet new standards.  The purpose of this report is to provide
details on incremental technology and estimated costs for sterndrive and
inboard marine SI engines that could meet reduced emission standards. 
ICF International developed technology packages for sterndrive marine SI
engines, which include electronically controlled fuel injection systems,
three-way catalysts, and exhaust gas recirculation.  These technology
packages are representative of what might be used on inboard marine SI
engines.  The cost estimates include fixed and variable costs and rely
on information obtained from information gathered from engine and
equipment manufacturers and experience in costing other SI engine
technologies.  Representative engine models of different sizes are used
to develop incremental technologies. Particular attention is given to
catalyst sizes, given the limited space between the engine exhaust port
and the point at which the exhaust system is cooled with water.  Early
drafts of the technology package descriptions and cost estimates were
submitted for review to industry contacts that provided initial
information.  Their comments were incorporated in the results presented
in this report.

	The following sections will discuss background information on
sterndrive and inboard marine SI engines (Section 2), describe baseline
and advanced technologies (Section 3), and present the cost estimate
methodologies (Section 4) and the results obtained (Section 5).

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Background

	The marine engine manufacturing process consists in most cases of two
phases: the first phase is performed by the engine block manufacturer
and the second by the marinizer.  Unlike marine diesel engines, it is
rare for the engine block manufacturer to provide a completed engine. 
Engine block manufacturers are responsible for assembling the block,
cylinder head, and occasionally the intake manifold. The block
manufacturers also install fuel systems on a few of the engine models
produced.  This trend is projected to increase in the future.  Block
manufacturers also provide separately several of the parts that
marinizers will later add to the engine.  

	 Marinizers transform the engine blocks they receive from the
manufacturers and add the features that permit optimal performance as
marine engines.  This process includes waterproofing, adding a fuel
system, a sterndrive or an inboard gear package, a marine exhaust
system, and a marine cooling system.  Marinizers may also be water craft
manufacturers and in that capacity install their completed engines in
boats.

	Sterndrive marine engines have unique cooling and exhaust systems as
shown in Figure 2-1. Inboard marine engines are similar to sterndrive
engines but have fewer design constraints.  The cost estimates for
sterndrive engines developed in this study can therefore be considered
worst-case scenarios for inboard marine engines.  Sterndrive marine SI
engines are essentially all gasoline powered.

Figure   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Figure \* ARABIC \s 1  1 . Volvo
Sterndrive Gasoline Aquamatic Engine

Source: Volvo-Penta – Global at   HYPERLINK
"http://www.volvo.com/volvopenta/global/en-gb/marineengines/powerforleis
ureboats/gasoline_sterndrive/57sx/" 
http://www.volvo.com/volvopenta/global/en-gb/marineengines/powerforleisu
reboats/gasoline_sterndrive/57sx/ 

			

	According to the National Marine Manufacturers Association’s (NMMA)
estimates, which can be found in Table 2-1, the sales of sterndrive and
inboard marine boats fluctuate slightly from year to year.  Sterndrive
and inboard boats account for about 18% and 5% respectively of the total
mechanically propelled recreational boat sales in the United States in
2004, and have shown a slight decreasing trend in market share over the
last several years.

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  2 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 . Sterndrive and
Inboard Boat Sale Estimates (2000-2004) (NMMA)

Year	2000	2001	2002	2003	2004

Sterndrive Units Sold	78,400	72,000	69,300	69,200	71,100

Inboard Units Sold	23,900	21,900	22,300	19,200	20,200







	

	Current trends in the sterndrive and inboard marine industry include
the increased use of fuel injection over carburetion, especially among
larger engines (4.3 L and above). Engine production is estimated to be
mostly or completely fuel injected within the next five years.  In
addition, block manufacturers are starting to increase their production
of more complete engines, which would include intake manifold and fuel
system.  This change is motivated by the block manufacturers’ desire
to simplify the manufacturing process and by the potential financial
profit to be gained by selling to marinizers a more complete product at
a higher price.  This change shifts more of the emissions performance
responsibility on the engine manufactures where production volumes are
higher.

Technology Description

	The subsections to follow will describe baseline uncontrolled
sterndrive marine SI engines and the technologies likely to be
implemented to meet possible future emissions standards to meet reduced
HC+NOx and CO emissions.  This study focuses on four representative
sterndrive marine SI engines sizes: a 3.0 L in-line 4 cylinder engine, a
4.3 L V-6 engine, a 5.7 L V-8 engine, and an 8.1 L V-8 engine.  Other
engine models of similar sizes will have similar changes and costs. 
Table 3-1 lists the advance advanced technology packages for all four
chosen engine sizes.  

Baseline Technologies

	The baseline technologies on the four sterndrive marine SI engine
models consist of a mixture of carbureted and fuel injected systems that
are not calibrated for low emissions.  The smaller 4-cylinder engines’
production tend to have a higher percentage of carbureted models whereas
fuel injection is already becoming the most common fuel system for V-6
and V-8 engines.  V-6 engines and V-8 engines are typically port fuel
injected (PFI).  The industry has been moving towards incorporating more
fuel injected engines in their product lines, but still maintain their
carbureted models to provide a low-cost, entry-level marine engine for
their clients. 

Advanced Technologies

	The advanced technology changes projected to comply with lower emission
standards consist of feedback-controlled fuel injection replacing all
the remaining carbureted and all the uncontrolled fuel-injected engines.
 It is envisioned that three-way catalysts will be added to most
engines; however, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) might be used on some
engines to gain partial reductions in emissions.  The three-way
catalysts may be inserted into each exhaust manifold bank.  PFI provides
advantages in both controlling emissions and in performance because it
provides manufacturers with the ability to control the fuel-air ratio
for each individual cylinder.

	Technologies investigated in this report include fuel system
technologies, exhaust gas recirculation, oxygen sensors, electronic
control modules, and catalysts.

Fuel System Technologies

	A port fuel injection (PFI) system includes an injector per cylinder, a
fuel rail, a pressure regulator, an electronic control module (ECM),
manifold air pressure and temperature sensors, an oxygen sensor for each
exhaust bank, a high pressure fuel pump, a throttle assembly, a throttle
position sensor, and a magnetic crankshaft pickup for engine speed.  On
V-6 and V-8 engines, the fuel rails are connected into one assembly and
one pressure regulator is used. 

	PFI systems also require a cool fuel system in order to prevent vapor
lock problems.  When a boat’s engine is turned off, its heat can turn
the fuel in the fuel line into vapor.  If an attempt is made to restart
the engine, no fuel is supplied to the engine as the fuel injector
cannot inject vapor and because of the positive vapor pressure in the
fuel line, the pump will not pump liquid fuel into the line.  Cooling
the fuel using a cool fuel system will keep it in liquid state and
eliminate the occurrence of vapor lock.  

	In general, PFI systems provide better fuel distribution between
cylinders than carbureted fuel systems.  PFI allows for better fuel
control during transients than carbureted engines.  In addition,
feed-back controlled fuel injected systems can maintain stoichiometry
for better catalyst efficiency.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation

	The exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) valve permits a portion of the
exhaust gas to recirculate into the intake manifold.  This dilutes the
air/fuel mixture and lowers the combustion temperature, which in turn
reduces the formation of oxides of nitrogen (NOx).  EGR systems have
typically not been used in marine engines because they weren’t judged
necessary in the absence of emission standards.  Certain manufacturers
believed that EGR systems may cause higher exhaust temperatures,
although with a water cooled exhaust system this is unlikely to be a
safety problem.

	EGR systems are comprised of a short tube section between the intake
and exhaust manifold and a valve which is usually mounted on the intake
manifold.  Most EGR valves used today are electronically controlled for
more accurate control at all engine conditions.

Oxygen Sensors

	Oxygen sensors are added before the catalyst for closed-loop control
purposes. A sterndrive marine engine will require one sensor per exhaust
bank.  This practice will minimize the occurrence of maldistribution
between cylinders in V-6 and V-8 engines.  Oxygen sensors also help hold
the air/fuel mixture at stoichiometry for better combustion and catalyst
efficiency.

	Oxygen sensors are generally not used in uncontrolled systems. 
Controlled systems will most probably use non-heated sensors, since
cold-starting emissions on these engines are not regulated.  While there
is some concern about oxygen sensor life in marine engines, placing the
oxygen sensor before the catalyst in the exhaust riser should prevent
water contact.  Initial durability tests at Southwest Research Institute
show reasonable oxygen sensor life using heated marine-grade oxygen
sensors.

Electronic Control Modules

	Electronic control modules (ECM) control fuel injection and ignition
timing in uncontrolled and controlled fuel injected systems.  Carbureted
systems may also use an ignition control module (ICM) which has limited
functions.  

	Currently fuel injected systems’ ECMs are 32-bit systems.  Although
fuel injected systems’ ECMs will be required to perform more tasks to
meet emissions standards, the 32-bit processors are still adequate for
these additional requirements.  A large portion of ECM costs are related
to software development which is part of fixed costs.

Catalysts

	Three-way catalysts are an essential component of the emission
reduction systems of controlled engines.  The catalyst envisioned for
sterndrive marine engines will be a small “brick” (0.75 to 1.5 L)
which will be located inside the exhaust riser.   Southwest Research
Institute has tested both metal and ceramic catalysts in this position
in inboard engines and found that adequate emission reductions can be
realized with reasonable catalyst life.

	Table 3-2 summarizes the characteristics of three-way marine catalysts
costed in this analysis.  Platinum/Rhodium precious metal catalysts will
most likely be used.  Precious metal loading of around 1.0 grams per
liter of catalyst size is expected to be used. 

	V-6 and V-8 engines will require two bricks, one in each exhaust bank. 
According to catalyst manufacturers, a ceramic substrate will be
sufficiently strong to withstand the vibration and temperature
variations marine systems are subjected to. Advances over the past few
decades in the matting used to package the catalysts have led to very
durable ceramic catalysts.  To avoid underestimating costs, we
calculated costs for the ceramic substrate mounted in the exhaust riser
with a steel shell. In practice, the substrate can be mounted with or
without a shell.  

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  3 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 . Three Way
Catalyst Characteristics

Engine Size	3.0 L I-4	4.3 L V-6	5.7 L V-8	8.1 L V-8

Number of Catalysts	1	2	2	2

Catalyst Size	1.00 L	0.75 L	1.00 L	1.40 L

Total Volume	1.00 L	1.50 L	2.00 L	2.80 L

Substrate	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch	Ceramic

400 cells per inch

Washcoat	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide	75% cerium

25% alumina oxide

Precious Metals	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g/liter	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g/liter	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g/liter	Pt/Rh   4/1

Loading 1.0 g/liter









Cost Methodology

	In order to determine costs for technologies that manufacturers are
likely to employ to comply with potential future emission regulations,
representative models of the four engine sizes described earlier were
chosen among several manufacturers’ engine lines and cost information
was collected for each.  No single model’s costs were used to develop
the estimates presented in this report, but rather representative
averages of all costs collected were used for each technology. 

	The technologies described in Section 3 have benefits that go beyond
emission control.  Assigning the full incremental cost of these
technologies as an impact of emissions standards may therefore
overestimate the true cost of emission control.  The costing described
herein only focuses on emissions-related improvements and not
performance-related ones. All costs are reported in 2005 dollars and
represent the incremental costs for engines to meet the proposed
emission standards. 

Hardware Costs

	The main components of the hardware cost to the manufacturers are the
fuel system and the catalyst or exhaust gas recirculation.  Manufacturer
prices of components were estimated from various sources including
confidential information from engine manufacturers, marinizers, and
previous work performed by ICF International on spark-ignited engine
technology.  Discounted dealer and parts supplier prices were used to
verify the range of component prices, as were prices obtained directly
from marinizers.

	Catalyst component information was obtained directly from catalyst
manufacturers.  Although there are presently no three-way catalysts for
marine SI engines available on the market, a recent program at Southwest
Research Institute tested catalysts on inboard marine engines which
provided size and catalyst formulations used for this analysis. 
Catalyst manufacturers verified our estimates on precious metal and
washcoat loadings as well as catalyst volumes and overall prices for the
units.   The prices of precious metal per troy oz. represent average
prices over the last three years. Washcoat and steel prices represent
current estimates. The labor cost is based upon a small scale production
of catalysts of a similar size of 15,000 units per year and an average
labor time of three quarters of an hour per unit, which includes the
time necessary to install the catalyst in the exhaust manifold.  To
minimize costs, marinizers with similar-sized engines will most likely
use a similar catalyst.  Labor rates used are estimated $17.50 per hour
plus a 60% fringe rate for a total labor cost of $28 per hour.

	All hardware costs to the engine manufacturer are subject to a 29%
mark-up which represents a typical mark-up of technologies on new engine
sales. This mark-up includes manufacturer overhead, manufacturer profit,
dealer overhead and dealer profit.  A separate supplier mark-up of 29%
is also applied to the catalyst. The 5% warranty markup is added to the
hardware cost to represent an overhead charge covering warranty claims
associated with new parts. This is a lower rate than what would be
typically used because of the long history of electronic fuel injection
systems in other applications.

Fixed Costs

	The fixed costs to the manufacturer include the cost of researching,
developing and testing a new technology.  It also includes the cost of
retooling the assembly line for the production of new parts.  Reflecting
the two stages in manufacturing a marine SI engine, the fixed costs are
listed separately for the engine block manufacturer and the marinizer. 
Because advanced fuel system technology needed to reduce emissions is
already in part present in a considerable share of many current product
lines, research and development for this technology is not considered in
the fixed costs. Most of the fixed cost represents the research and
development needed to develop and test controlled engines with EGR,
oxygen sensors, and three-way catalysts.  Much of this development work
will be done by marinizers.

	The number of units per year and the number of years to recover are
used to determine the fixed cost per unit in 2005 dollars. Sales
production in units per year for the four engine sizes are shown in
Table 4-1. These numbers are estimates derived from confidential
information received from the certification database.  The numbers
reflect the variation in average production between large and small
businesses that share the market. 

 Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  4 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 .  Production
Levels (units per year)

Engine Size	3.0 L I-4	4.3 L V-6	5.7 L V-8	8.1 L V-8

Manufacturer	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000

Marinizer	2,000	2,000	2,000	1,000







	Fixed costs include research and development engineers, technicians,
mechanics and drivers with a 45% fringe and 40% overhead mark-up.  The
dynamometer test cost of $200 per hour includes the amortized capital
costs for the test cells over a 10 year period and allocated costs for
calibration gases and maintenance on the equipment.

	Five years represents a typical length of time used in the industry to
recover an investment in new technology.

Operating Costs

	Fuel injection systems typically reduce fuel consumption by about 10%
over carbureted versions due to better cylinder to cylinder fuel
distribution, better air/fuel mixing, and better control of transients. 
Fuel cost savings for use of fuel injection over carburetion have been
analyzed using an average gasoline price of $1.92 per gallon.  A load
factor of 0.21 has been used along with an activity of 47.6 hours per
year and an average life of 19.7 years to calculate total fuel savings. 
A discount rate of 3% per annum over the life of the engine was used to
calculate present values.

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Results

	Preliminary cost estimates for engines and catalysts were submitted for
review to the industry contacts that provided the initial cost
information.  Their comments were incorporated in the final version of
the cost estimates which are presented in the tables at the end of this
document.

	Tables 5-1 to 5-4 show a detailed development of cost estimates for
each of the technology packages for each engine.

	Electronic control unit costs include hardware and software costs.  The
hardware costs are shown under the hardware costs to the manufacturer in
Tables 5-1 through 5-4.  Software costs are included in the fixed costs
to the manufacturer and marinizer as the software is developed during
the design and development process and refined during the prototype
testing process.

	The catalysts prices presented in Table 5-5 are the prices per unit. 
The total catalyst price depends on the number of units used for each
engine.  Prices per units vary between $89 and $127 and total prices
between $103 and $254.

	Tables 5-6 to 5-9 describe in detail the composition of the research
and development costs and the tooling costs for both engine
manufacturers (Table 5-6 and 5-7) and marinizers (Table 5-8 and 5-9). 
The research and development costs for engine manufacturers (Table 5-6)
and marinizers (Table 5-8) consist of the engineering design costs, the
product development costs, and the prototype testing costs.  The design
and development costs are essentially engineer and technician hours. 
The bulk of these hours are incurred by the engine manufacturer. This
may increase in the future as a result of new emission standards. 
Prototype testing costs consist of performing stationary tests as well
as tests in water.

	The tooling costs for engine manufacturers are summarized in Table 5-7.
  Marinizers’ only tooling costs (Table 5-9) will consist of the costs
of updating their assembly line with new tools.

	The costs presented in Table 5-10 are the incremental cost of all the
possible combinations of baseline and controlled technology scenarios. 
The results show that the most costly technology change is the upgrade
from a baseline of uncontrolled carbureted engines to controlled
fuel-injected systems with catalysts.  The cost for these changes range
between $925 and $1,366 per engine. Upgrading from a baseline of
uncontrolled to controlled fuel injected systems with catalysts costs
about $291 to $647. 

	Operating cost savings for conversion from carburetor to fuel injection
are shown in Table 5-11.  Fuel consumption differences for using EGR or
three-way catalysts are negligible. 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  1 . Water Cooled
Marine Gasoline Engine 3.0 liters In-line

 	Uncontrolled Carburetor	Uncontrolled PFI	Controlled PFI w EGR
Controlled PFI w Catalyst

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

     Carburetor	$140 	N/A	N/A	N/A

     Injectors (each) 	 	$17 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	4	4	4

    Pressure Regulator	 	$15 	$15 	$15 

    Fuel filter	$3 	$4 	$4 	$4 

    Intake Manifold	$101 	$115 	$120 	$115 

    Fuel Rail	 	$80 	$80 	$80 

    Throttle Assembly (incl. position sensor)	 	$150 	$150 	$150 

    Cool Fuel System	 	$120 	$120 	$120 

     Fuel Pump	$21 	Included in Cool Fuel System

     Fuel Line	 	$16 	$16 	$16 

    Oxygen Sensor (each)	 	 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	 	1	1

    ECM	$30 	$100 	$100 	$100 

    Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	$5 

    Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$14 	$14 	$14 

    Crank Position Sensor	 	$16 	$16 	$16 

    Wiring/ Related Hardware	 	$80 	$80 	$80 

Exhaust Gas Recirculation	 	 	$25

	Fuel System with EGR cost (if applicable)	$295 	$783 	$830 	$800

Catalyst	 	 	 	$74 

Incremental exhaust manifold cost	 	 	$2 	$10 

Total Hardware Cost	$295 	$783 	$832 	$884 

Labor @ $28/hr	$1	$4	$5	$6

Labor Overhead @ 40%	$1	$2	$2	$2

Markup @ 29%	$86 	$229 	$243 	$259 

Warranty Markup at 5%	 	 	$27	$29

Total  Component Cost	$383 	$1,018 	$1,109	$1,180 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	          -   	           -   	$137,673 	$137,673 

Tooling Costs	          -   	           -   	$30,000 	$30,000 

Units/yr.	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$5 	$3 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$383 	$1,018 	$1,112 	$1,183 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Marinizer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$238,773	$238,773 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$35,000 	$35,000 

Units/yr.	2,000	2,000	2,000	2,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$38 	$38 







Total Cost from Marinizer	$383 	$1,018 	$1,150 	$1,221 

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled Carburetor	$635	$767	$838

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled PFI	 

$132	$203

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  2 . Water Cooled
Marine Gasoline Engine 4.3 liters V-6

	Uncontrolled Carburetor	Uncontrolled PFI	Controlled PFI w EGR
Controlled PFI w Catalyst

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

     Carburetor	$145 	N/A	N/A	N/A

     Injectors (each) 	 	$17	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	6	6	6

    Pressure Regulator	 	$15	$15 	$15 

    Fuel filter	$3 	$4	$4 	$4 

    Intake Manifold	$90 	$115	$120 	$115

    Fuel Rail Assembly	 	$110	$110 	$110 

    Throttle Assembly (incl. position sensor)	 	$150	$150 	$150 

    Cool Fuel System	 	$120	$120 	$120 

     Fuel Pump	$35 	Included in  cool fuel system

     Fuel Lines	 	$35	$35 	$35 

    Oxygen Sensor (each)	 	 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	 	2	2

    ECM	$35 	$100	$100 	$100 

    Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5	$5 	$5 

    Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$14	$14 	$14 

    Crank Position Sensor	 	$16	$16 	$16 

    Wiring/ Related Hardware	 	$80	$80 	$80 

Exhaust Gas Recirculation	 	 	$25 

	Fuel System with EGR cost	$308 	$866	$930	$900 

Catalyst ( 2 units)	 	 	 	$119 

Incremental exhaust manifold cost	 	 	$5 	$20 

Total Hardware Cost	$308 	$866	$935 	$1,039 

Labor @ $28/hr	 $1	 $5	 $6	 $6

Labor Overhead @ 40%	 $1	 $2	 $2	 $3

Markup @ 29%	$90 	$253 	$273 	$304 

Warranty Markup at 5%	 	 	$3 	$9 

Total  Component Cost	$400 	$1,126 	$1,220 	$1,360 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$140,348 	$140,348 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$35,000 	$35,000 

Units/yr.	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$3 	$3 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$400 	$1,126 	$1,223 	$1,363 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Marinizer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$245,773 	$245,773 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$45,000 	$45,000 

Units/yr.	2,000	2,000	2,000	2,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$40 	$40 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Marinizer	$400 	$1,126 	$1,263 	$1,403

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled Carburetor	$726	$863	$1,003

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled PFI	 

$137	$277

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  3 . Water Cooled
Marine Gasoline Engine 5.7 liters V-8

	Uncontrolled Carburetor	Uncontrolled PFI	Controlled PFI w EGR
Controlled PFI w Catalyst

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

     Carburetor	$145 	N/A	N/A	N/A

     Injectors (each)	 	$17 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	8	8	8

    Pressure Regulator	 	$15 	$15 	$15 

    Fuel filter	$3 	$4 	$4 	$4 

    Intake Manifold	$95 	$125 	$135 	$125 

    Fuel Rail Assembly	 	$115 	$115 	$115 

    Throttle Assembly (incl. position sensor)	 	$150 	$150 	$150 

    Cool Fuel System	 	$120 	$120 	$120 

     Fuel Pump	$35 	Included in  cool fuel system

     Fuel Line	 	$35 	$35 	$35 

    Oxygen Sensor (each)	 	 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	 	2	2

    ECM	$35 	$100 	$100 	$100 

    Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	$5 

    Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$14 	$14 	$14 

    Crank Position Sensor	 	$16 	$16 	$16 

    Wiring/ Related Hardware	 	$80 	$80 	$80 

Exhaust Gas Recirculation	 	 	$25 	 

Fuel System with EGR cost	$313 	$915 	$984 	$949 

Catalyst (2 units)	 	 	 	$148 

Incremental exhaust manifold cost	 	 	$5 	$25

Total Hardware Cost	$313 	$915 	$989 	$1,122 

Labor @ $28/hr	 $1	 $6	$6 	 $7

Labor Overhead @ 40%	 $1	 $2	 $3	 $3

Markup @ 29%	$91 	$268 	$289 	$328 

Warranty Markup at 5%	 	 	$4 	$10 

Total  Component Cost	$406 	$1,190	$1,291 	$1,470

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$142,798 	$142,798 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$40,000 	$40,000 

Units/yr.	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$3 	$3 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$406 	$1,190 	$1,294 	$1,474 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Marinizer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$254,273 	$254,273 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$55,000 	$55,000 

Units/yr.	2,000	2,000	2,000	2,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$43 	$43 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Marinizer	$406 	$1,190 	$1,337 	$1,516 

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled Carburetor	$784	$931	$1,110

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled PFI	 

$147	$326

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  4 . Water Cooled
Marine Gasoline Engine 8.1 liters V-8

	Uncontrolled Carburetor	Uncontrolled PFI	Controlled PFI w EGR
Controlled PFI w Catalyst

Hardware Cost to Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

     Carburetor	$145 	N/A	N/A	N/A

     Injectors (each)	 	$20 	$20 	$20 

          Number 	 	8	8	8

    Pressure Regulator	 	$15 	$15 	$15 

    Fuel filter	$3 	$4 	$4 	$4 

    Intake Manifold	$100 	$140 	$150 	$140 

    Fuel Rail Assembly	 	$125 	$125 	$125 

    Throttle Assembly (incl. position sensor)	 	$60 	$60 	$60 

    Cool Fuel System	 	$120 	$120 	$120 

     Fuel Pump	$35 	Included in  cool fuel system

     Fuel Line	 	$35 	$35 	$35 

    Oxygen Sensor (each)	 	 	$17 	$17 

          Number 	 	 	2	2

    ECM	$40 	$100 	$100 	$100 

    Air Intake Temperature Sensor	 	$5 	$5 	$5 

    Manifold Air Pressure Sensor	 	$14 	$14 	$14 

    Crank Position Sensor	 	$16 	$16 	$16 

    Wiring/ Related Hardware	 	$80 	$80 	$80 

Exhaust Gas Recirculation	 	 	$25 

	Fuel System with EGR cost	$323 	$874 	$943 	$908 

Catalyst (2 units)	 	 	 	$195 

Incremental exhaust manifold cost	 	 	$5 	$30 

Total Hardware Cost	$323 	$829 	$948 	$1,133 

Labor @ $28/hr	 $1	$6	 $6	$7

Labor Overhead @ 40%	 $1	$2	 $3	$3

Markup @ 29%	$94 	$256 	$277 	$331 

Warranty Markup at 5%	 	 	$4	$13

Total  Component Cost	$419 	$1,138 	$1,238 	$1,487 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Engine Manufacturer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$147,848 	$147,848 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$45,000 	$45,000 

Units/yr.	15,000	15,000	15,000	15,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$4 	$4 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Engine Manufacturer	$419 	$1,138 	$1,242 	$1,491 

 	 	 	 	 

Fixed Cost to Marinizer	 	 	 	 

R&D Costs	-   	-   	$262,773 	$262,773 

Tooling Costs	-   	-   	$55,000 	$55,000 

Units/yr.	1,000	1,000	1,000	1,000

Years to recover	5	5 	5 	5 

Fixed cost/unit	-   	-   	$88 	$88 

 	 	 	 	 

Total Cost from Marinizer	$419 	$1,138 	$1,329 	$1,579 

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled Carburetor	$718	$910	$1,159

Incremental Cost from Uncontrolled PFI	 

$192	$441

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  5 . Three-way
Marine Catalysts Cost Estimates

Table 5-5a.  Catalyst Parameters

Washcoat Loading	g/L	160

% ceria	by wt.	75

% alumina	by wt.	25

Precious Metal Loading	g/L	1.0

% Platinum	by wt.	80.0

% Palladium	by wt.	0.0

% Rhodium	by wt.	20.0

Labor Cost 	$/hr	$28.00 



Table 5-5b.  Material Costs

Material	$/troy oz	$/lb	$/g	Density (g/cc)

Alumina	 	$64.00 	$0.141 	3.9

Ceria	 	$22.00 	$0.049 	7.132

Platinum	$811 	 	$26.08 	 

Palladium	$210 	 	$6.76 	 

Rhodium	$1,121 	 	$36.04 	 

Stainless Steel	 	$0.85 	$0.003 	7.817



Table 5-5c.  Catalyst Unit Price

Engine Size (L)	3.0	4.3	5.7	8.1

Catalyst Volume (L) (each)	1.00	0.75	1.00	1.40

Number of Catalysts	1	2	2	2

Substrate Diameter (cm)	9.5	8.3	9.5	11.0

Substrate	$7.67	$6.50	$7.67	$9.53

Ceria/Alumina	$11.47	$8.60	$11.47	$16.06

Pt/Pd/Rd	$28.07	$21.06	$28.07	$39.30

Can (18 gauge 409 SS)	$3.49	$3.15	$3.49	$4.06

     Substrate Diameter (cm)	9.5	8.3	9.5	11.0

     Substrate Length (cm)	14.1	13.9	14.1	14.7

     Working Length (cm)	16.9	16.7	16.9	17.5

     Thick. Of Steel (cm)	0.121	0.121	0.121	0.121

     Shell Volume (cm3)	126	116	126	144

     Steel End Cap Volume (cm3)	19	15	19	25

     Vol. Of Steel (cm3)w/20% scrap	174	157	174	203

     Wt. Of Steel (g)	1361	1228	1361	1584

TOTAL MAT. COST	$50.70	$39.30	$50.70	$68.95

LABOR	$4.76 	$4.76 	$4.76 	$4.76 

Labor Overhead @ 40%	$1.90 	$1.90 	$1.90 	$1.90 

Supplier Markup @ 29%	$16.63 	$13.33 	$16.63 	$21.93 

Manufacturer Price per unit	$73.99 	$59.30 	$73.99 	$97.54 

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  6 . Engine
Manufacturer Research, Development and Prototype Costs



3.0 L In-Line 4 135 hp	4.3 L V-6 205 hp	5.7 L V-8 285 hp	8.1 L V-8 400
hp



Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost

Design	Engineer	600	$64.41 	$38,648	600	$64.41 	$38,648	600	$64.41 
$38,648	600	$64.41 	$38,648

Development	Engineer	800	$64.41 	$51,531	800	$64.41 	$51,531	800	$64.41 
$51,531	800	$64.41 	$51,531

	Technician	1000	$41.87 	$41,869	1000	$41.87 	$41,869	1000	$41.87 
$41,869	1000	$41.87 	$41,869

Prototype 	Engine	 	 	$3,625	 	 	$5,800	 	 	$7,750	 	 	$12,300

	Shipping	 	 	$2,000	 	 	$2,500	 	 	$3,000	 	 	$3,500



Total Cost	$137,673	Total Cost	$140,348	Total Cost	$142,798	Total Cost
$147,848



Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  7 . Engine
Manufacturer Tooling Costs

Engine Size	3.0 L	4.3 L	5.7 L	8.1 L

Fixture/Tools	$30,000	$35,000	$40,000	$45,000



Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  8 . Marinizer
Research, Development and Testing Costs



3.0 L In-Line 4 135 hp	4.3 L V-6 205 hp	5.7 L V-8 285 hp	8.1 L V-8 400
hp



Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost	Hours	Rates	Cost

Design	Engineer	600	$64.41 	$38,648	600	$64.41 	$38,648	600	$64.41 
$38,648	600	$64.41 	$38,648

Development 	Engineer	800	$64.41 	$51,531	800	$64.41 	$51,531	800
$64.41 	$51,531	800	$64.41 	$51,531

	Technician	800	$41.87 	$33,495	800	$41.87 	$33,495	800	$41.87 	$33,495
800	$41.87 	$33,495

Prototype Test	Boat	 	 	$10,000	 	 	$15,000	 	 	$20,000	 	 
$25,000

	Dyno	300	$250	$75,000	300	$250	$75,000	300	$250	$75,000	300	$250
$75,000

	Boat Testing Tech	200	$41.87 	$8,374	200	$41.87 	$8,374	200	$41.87 
$8,374	200	$41.87 	$8,374

	Boat Testing Mech	200	$41.87 	$8,374	200	$41.87 	$8,374	200	$41.87 
$8,374	200	$41.87 	$8,374

	Test Fuel ($5/gal)	300	3 gal/hr	$4,500	300	4 gal/hr	$6,000	300	6 gal/hr
$9,000	300	8 gal/hr	$12,000

	Shipping	 	 	$2,000	 	 	$2,500	 	 	$3,000	 	 	$3,500

	Driver	300	$22.84 	$6,851	300	$22.84 	$6,851	300	$22.84 	$6,851	300
$22.84 	$6,851



Total Cost	238,773	Total Cost	$245,773	Total Cost	$254,273	Total Cost
$262,773



Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  9 . Marinizer
Tooling Costs

Engine Size	3.0 L	4.3 L	5.7 L	8.1 L

Pattern Work	$20,000	$25,000	$30,000	$30,000

Fixture/Tools	$15,000	$20,000	$25,000	$25,000

Total Cost	$220,000	$265,000	$310,000	$355,000

Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  10 . Summary of
Incremental Technology Costs

Engine Size	Technologies	Controlled PFI with EGR	Controlled PFI with TWC

3.0 liter I- 4	Uncontrolled Carburetor	$767	$838

	Uncontrolled PFI	$132	$203

4.3 liter V-6	Uncontrolled Carburetor	$863	$1,003

	Uncontrolled PFI	$137	$277

5.7 liter V-8	Uncontrolled Carburetor	$931	$1,110

	Uncontrolled PFI	$147	$326

8.1 liter V-8	Uncontrolled Carburetor	$910	$1,159

	Uncontrolled PFI	$192	$441



Table   STYLEREF 1 \s  5 -  SEQ Table \* ARABIC \s 1  11 .  Operating
Cost Savings

Engine Size	3.0 L I-4	4.3 L V-6	5.7 L V-8	8.1 L V-8

Fuel System	Carb	FI	Carb	FI	Carb	FI	Carb	FI

Horsepower	135	135	205	205	285	285	400	400

BSFC (lbs/hp-hr)	0.658	0.567	0.658	0.567	0.658	0.567	0.658	0.567

Load Factor	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21	0.21

Hours/year	47.6	47.6	47.6	47.6	47.6	47.6	47.6	47.6

Gallons per year	143.2	123.4	217.5	187.4	302.3	260.5	424.3	365.7

Cost per year	$275 	$237 	$418 	$360 	$581 	$500 	$815 	$702 

Life, yrs	19.7	19.7	19.7	19.7	19.7	19.7	19.7	19.7

Total Cost	$4,046 	$3,486 	$6,144 	$5,294 	$8,541 	$7,360 	$11,987 
$10,330 

Cost Savings	 	$560 	 	$850 	 	$1,181 	 	$1,658 



  Update of EPA’s Motor Vehicle Emission Control Equipment Retail
Price Equivalent (RPE) Calculation Formula,” Jack Faucett Associates,
Report No. JACKFAU-85-322-3, September 1985. 

 National average retail gasoline prices for 2005 without taxes from the
Energy Information Administration.

 Load factor, activity and lifetime values are consistent with values
used in EPA’s NONROAD model.

Table of Contents

ICF International	  PAGE  ii 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  i 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Introduction

ICF International	  PAGE  1-2 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  1-1 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164/WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Background

ICF International	  PAGE  2-2 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  2-1 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006

Technology Description

Cost Methodology

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-9 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

Results

ICF International	  PAGE  5-8 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-11 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		July 2006

ICF International	  PAGE  5-10 	EPA Contract No.  68-C-01-164 / WA 4-7

021348		 July 2006.

